The MiG-31 is the fastest operational combat aircraft in the world.[3] It continues to be operated by the Russian Aerospace Forces and Kazakh Air Defense Forces following the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Russian Defence Ministry expects the MiG-31 to remain in service until at least 2030; that was confirmed in 2020 when an announcement was made to extend the service lifetime of the existing airframes from 2,500 to 3,500 hours.[4][5]
Development
Background
The single-seat MiG-25 could achieve high speed, altitude and rate of climb; however, it lacked maneuverability at interception speeds and was difficult to fly at low altitudes. The MiG-25's speed was normally limited to Mach 2.83, but it could reach a maximum speed of at least Mach 3.2 with the risk of engine damage.[6][7]
Development of the MiG-25's replacement began with the Ye-155MP (Russian: Е-155МП) prototype which first flew on 16 September 1975.[8] Although it bore a superficial resemblance to the MiG-25, it had a longer fuselage to accommodate the radar operator's cockpit and was in many respects a new design. An important development was the MiG-31's advanced radar, capable of both look-up and look-down/shoot-down engagement, as well as multiple target tracking. This gave the Soviet Union an interceptor with the capability to engage the most likely Western intruders (low-flying cruise missiles and bombers) at long range.[1] The MiG-31 replaced the Tu-128 as the Soviet Union's dedicated long-range interceptor,[9] with far more advanced sensors and weapons,[10] while its range is almost double that of the MiG-25.
Like that of its MiG-25 predecessor, the introduction of the MiG-31 was surrounded by early speculation and misinformation concerning its design and abilities. The West learned of the new interceptor from Lieutenant Viktor Belenko, a pilot who defected to Japan in 1976 with his MiG-25P.[11] Belenko described an upcoming "Super Foxbat" with two seats and an ability to intercept cruise missiles. According to his testimony, the new interceptor was to have air intakes similar to the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23, which the MiG-31 does not have, at least in production variants.[12]
Production
Serial production of the MiG-31 began in 1979.[13][14] The first production batch of 519 MiG-31s including 349 "baseline models" was produced at the Sokol plant between 1976 and 1988. The second batch of 101 MiG-31DZs was produced from 1989 to 1991. The final batch of 69 MiG-31B aircraft was produced between 1990 and 1994.[15] From the final batch, 50 were retained by the Kazakhstan Air Force after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Of the "baseline models", 40 airframes were upgraded to MiG-31BS standard.[1]
Upgrades and replacement
Some upgrade programs have found their way into the MiG-31 fleet, like the MiG-31BM multirole version with upgraded avionics, new multimode radar, hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls, liquid crystal (LCD) color multi-function displays (MFDs), ability to carry the R-77 missile and various Russian air-to-ground missiles (AGMs) such as the Kh-31anti-radiation missile (ARM), a new and more powerful computer, and digital data links. A project to upgrade the Russian MiG-31 fleet to the MiG-31BM standard began in 2010;[citation needed] 100 aircraft were to be upgraded to the MiG-31BM standard by 2020.[16] Russian Federation Defence Ministry chief Colonel Yuri Balyko has claimed that the upgrade will increase the combat effectiveness of the aircraft several times over.[17] 18 MIG-31BMs were delivered in 2014.[18] The Russian military was to receive more than 130 upgraded MiG-31BMs, with the first 24 aircraft already delivered according to Russian Deputy Defense Minister Yuri Borisov in his press briefing on 9 April 2015.[19]
Russia planned to start development of a replacement for the MiG-31 by 2019. The aircraft would be called PAK-DP (ПАК ДП, Перспективный авиационный комплекс дальнего перехвата – Prospective Air Complex for Long-Range Interception).[20] Development of the new aircraft, designated MiG-41, began in April 2013. Such development is favored over restarting MiG-31 production.[citation needed] In March 2014, Russian test pilot Anatoly Kvochur said that work began on a Mach 4 capable MiG-41 based on the MiG-31.[21][22] Later reports stated that the development of the MiG-31 replacement was to begin in 2017, with the first aircraft to be delivered in 2020, and the replacement entering service in 2025.[23][needs update]
Design
Russian Air Force MiG-31B in 2011
Like the MiG-25, the MiG-31 is a large twin-engine aircraft with side-mounted air intake ramps, a shoulder-mounted wing with an aspect ratio of 2.94, and twin vertical tailfins. Unlike the MiG-25, it has two seats, with the rear occupied by a dedicated weapon systems officer.[24]
The MiG-31 was designed to fulfill the following mission objectives:[1]
Intercept cruise missiles and their launch aircraft by reaching missile launch range in the shortest possible time after departing the loiter area;
Detect and destroy low flying cruise missiles, UAVs and helicopters;
Long range escort of strategic bombers;
Provide strategic air defense in areas not covered by ground-based air defense systems.
The wings and airframe of the MiG-31 are stronger than those of the MiG-25, permitting supersonic flight at low altitudes. Like the MiG-25, its flight surfaces are built primarily of nickel-steel alloy, enabling the aircraft to tolerate kinetic heating at airspeeds approaching Mach 3. The MiG-31 airframe comprises 49% arc-welded nickel steel, 33% light metal alloy, 16% titanium and 2% composites.[25] Its D30-F6 jet engines, each rated at 152 kN thrust, allow a maximum speed of Mach 1.23 at low altitude. High-altitude speed is temperature-redlined to Mach 2.83 – the thrust-to-drag ratio is sufficient for speeds in excess of Mach 3, but such speeds pose unacceptable hazards to engine and airframe life in routine use.[6]
The MiG-31 was the world's first operational fighter with a passive electronically scanned array (PESA) radar, the Zaslon S-800. Its maximum range against fighter-sized targets is approximately 200 km (120 mi), and it can track up to 10 targets and simultaneously attack four of them with its VympelR-33 missiles. The radar is matched with an infrared search and track (IRST) system in a retractable undernose fairing.[6]
The MiG-31 was equipped with RK-RLDN and APD-518[27] digital secure datalinks. The RK-RLDN datalink is for communication with ground control centers. The APD-518 datalink enables a flight of four MiG-31 to automatically exchange radar-generated data within 200 km (120 mi) from each other. It also enables other aircraft with less sophisticated avionics,[28] such as MiG-23s, 25s, and 29s and Su-15s and 27s,[29] to be directed to targets spotted by MiG-31 (a maximum of four (long-range) for each MiG-31 aircraft). The A-50AEW aircraft and MiG-31 can automatically exchange aerial and terrestrial radar target designation,[30] as well as air defense.[31] The MiG-31 is equipped with ECM of radar and infrared ranges.[32]
The flight-navigation equipment of the MiG-31 includes a complex of automatic control system SAU-155МP and sighting-navigation complex KN-25 with two inertial systems and IP-1-72A with digital computer, electronic long range navigation system Radical NP (312) or A-331, electronic system of the long-range navigation A-723. Distant radio navigation is carried out by means of two systems: Chayka (similar to the system of Loran) and «Route» (similar to the system of Omega).[clarification needed]
Similarly to the complex S-300 missile system,[33] aircraft group with APD-518 can share data obtained by various radars from different directions (active or passive scanning of radiation) and summarize the data. The target can be detected passively (via its emissions of jamming or use of its radar) and/or actively simultaneously from many different directions (with the MiG-31 using its radar). Every aircraft with the APD-518 will have the exact data, even if it is not involved in the search.[13][27][34]
interacting with ground-based automated digital control system (ACS «Rubezh» Operating radius of 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi), can control multiple groups of planes), operating modes of remote aiming, semi-automated actions (coordinate support), singly, and also: to direct on the target missiles launched from the other aircraft.
Digital immune system provides the automatic exchange of tactical information in a group of four interceptors, remote one from another at a distance of 200 km (120 mi) and aiming at the target group of fighters with less-powerful avionics (in this case the aircraft performs the role of guidance point or repeater).[29]
A group of four MiG-31 interceptors is able to control an area of air space across a total length of 800 to 900 kilometres (500 to 560 mi);[35] its radar possessing a maximum detection range of 200 kilometres (120 mi) in distance (radius) and the typical width of detection along the front of 225 kilometres (140 mi).[29]
Radars
Diagram shows how four MiG-31s can keep up to 1,000 km (620 mi) under control, and how the leader can pass information to friendly fighters.
Adopted in 1981 RP-31 N007 backstop (Russian: Zaslon).[34]
the range of detection of air targets with Zaslon-A: 200 km (120 mi) (for the purpose of a radar cross-section of 19 m2 on a collision angle with probability 0.5)
target detection distance with radar cross-section of 3 m2 (32 sq ft) in the rear within 35 km (22 mi) with a probability of 0.5[36][37]
number of detected targets: 24 (was originally 10[38])
number of targets for attack: 6 (was originally 4[38][39])
range of automatic tracking: 120 kilometres (75 mi)
Able to intercept and destroy cruise missiles flying at extremely low altitudes.[41][31]
Variant differences
The basic differences between other versions and the MiG-31BM are:[39]
The onboard radar complex of the MiG-31BM can track 24 airborne targets at one time, six of which can be simultaneously attacked by R-33S missiles.
Modernized variants of the aircraft can be equipped with anti-radiation missiles Kh-31, Kh-25MR or MPU (up to six units), anti-ship Kh-31A (up to six), air-to-surface class missiles Kh-29 and Kh-59 (up to three) or Kh-59M (up to two units), up to six precision bombs KAB-1500 or eight KAB-500 with television or laser-guidance. Maximum mass of payload is 9,000 kilograms (20,000 lb).[citation needed]
The MiG-31M, MiG-31D, and MiG-31BM standard aircraft have an upgraded Zaslon-M radar, with larger antenna and greater detection range (said to be 400 kilometres (250 mi) against AWACS-size targets) and the ability to attack multiple targets – air and ground – simultaneously. The Zaslon-M has a 1.4 m (4.6 ft) diameter (larger) antenna, with 50–100% better performance than Zaslon. In April 1994 it was used with an R-37 to hit a target at 300 kilometres (190 mi) distance.[34] It has a search range of 400 km (250 mi) for a 19–20 m2 (200–220 sq ft) RCS target and can track 24 targets at once, engaging six,[42][43] or 282 km (175 mi) for 5 m2 (54 sq ft).[44] Relative target speed detection increased from Mach 5 to Mach 6, improving the probability of destroying fast-moving targets.[34] The MiG-31BM is one of only a few aircraft able to intercept and destroy cruise missiles flying at extremely low altitude.[34][45][46]
Cockpit
Front seat cockpit of older MiG-31 variant
The aircraft is a two-seater with the rear seat occupant controlling the radar. Although cockpit controls are duplicated across cockpits, it is normal for the aircraft to be flown only from the front seat. The pilot flies the aircraft by means of a centre stick and left hand throttles. The rear cockpit has only two small vision ports on the sides of the canopy. The presence of the WSO (weapon systems operator) in the rear cockpit improves aircraft effectiveness since the WSO is entirely dedicated to radar operations and weapons deployment, thus decreasing the workload of the pilot and increasing efficiency. Both cockpits are fitted with zero/zero ejection seats which allow the crew to eject at any altitude and airspeed.[6]
Armament
A Russian Air Force MiG-31BM armed with R-33 missiles
The MiG-31's main armament is four R-33air-to-air missiles (NATO codename AA-9 'Amos') carried under the belly.
One GSh-6-23 23 mm (0.91 in) cannon with 260 rounds. (The MiG-31's predecessor, the MiG-25 did not include a cannon.[citation needed])
One Kh-47M2 Kinzhal high-precision ballistic missile with a range of about 2,000 km (1,200 mi), Mach 10 speed.[56][verification needed] It can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads.[57] This gave the MiG-31 long range strike capabilities for the first time, alongside its primary interceptor role.[58]
Operational history
A side view of a MiG-31 from 790th Fighter Order of Kutuzov Aviation Regiment on the runway of Khotilovo airbase, Tver region.A MiG-31B on left and MiG-31BM on right flying in formation.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, MiG-31 aircraft have reportedly shot down several Ukrainian aircraft, mainly by using the long range R-37 air-to-air missile. By remaining at high speed and high altitude, MiG-31s have been able to operate virtually unopposed due to Ukrainian fighters lacking range, speed, or altitude necessary to engage the MiG-31.[60][61]
The R-37M has, since October 2022, been the main threat against the Ukrainian Air Force. The Ukrainian Air Force has a significant lack of fire-and-forget missiles. They relied on the R-27 missiles, both the R-27ER and R-27ET; the R-27ER's range is 60 mi (97 km). A Ukrainian pilot must illuminate a Russian aircraft with radar to guide the missile to the target. Russian pilots firing the active-radar, fire-and-forget R-77 give them the ability to launch their missiles and then take evasive action. Ukrainian pilots were forced to "exploit ground clutter and terrain-masking to get close enough to fire before being engaged". During the first three days of the war both sides lost aircraft. The Ukrainians replaced them with older airframes that were made flyable. The Russian Aerospace Forces turned to the MiG-31 with the R-37M missile that has a range of 200 mi (320 km). Combined with the superior radar on the MiG-31, the Ukrainian Air Force has started losing more aircraft. A report by the Royal United Services Institute states that in October some six R-37Ms were being fired at the Ukrainian Air Force a day. Four MiG-31s were also deployed to Crimea. To avoid R-37M missiles, Ukraine has had to attempt to destroy MiG-31s while they are still on the ground, such as the attack on the Belbek airbase and an attempted drone attack in August.[62][63][64][65][66]
On the early morning of 4 May 2023, a Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missile was intercepted by the Patriot air defense system according to the commander of the Ukrainian Air Force, general Mykola Oleschuk. The missile was fired from a MiG-31K in Russian airspace. Ukraine confirmed the intercept, saying it used the Patriot missile system protecting the Kyiv region.[67][68][69]
On the morning of 16 May 2023, some six Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missiles were fired at Kyiv. Ukrainian Air Force spokesperson said that they were launched from six MiG-31Ks. Ukraine claims that all Kinzhals were intercepted but one may have damaged a Patriot battery launcher according to US officials, although, there is limited evidence to suggest that all six Kinzhals were successfully intercepted.[70]
Export
In 1992 Russia offered the MiG-31 to Finland,[71] which had a selection programme ongoing for a new fighter, but the offer was not submitted to the program, where Russia had submitted the MiG-29.[72] Finland did not accept the offer,[71] and chose the new fighter from the selection programme.[72]
Syria ordered eight MiG-31E aircraft in 2007 for the Syrian Air Force.[73][74] The order was suspended in May 2009 reportedly either due to Israeli pressure or lack of Syrian funds.[75]
Variants
A front view of a MiG-31 on the ramp of Khotilovo airbase, Tver regionBottom view of a MiG-31BM
Ye-155MP (MiG-25MP)
Prototype modification of the early MiG-31. First flight on 16 September 1975.
MiG-31
First variant which entered in serial production. 349 aircraft were built.
MiG-31M
Development of a more comprehensive advanced version, the MiG-31M, began in 1984 and first flew in 1985, but the dissolution of the Soviet Union prevented it from entering full production.[76][77] One piece rounded windscreen, small side windows for rear cockpit, wider and deeper dorsal spine. Digital flight controls added, multifunction CRT cockpit displays, multi-mode phased array radar. No gun fitted in this model, refueling probe moved to starboard side of aircraft, fuselage weapon stations increased from 4 to 6 by adding two centre-line stations. Maximum TO weight increased to 52,000 kg (115,000 lb) using increased thrust D-30F6M engines instead of the D-30F6 engines.[78] 1 prototype and 6 flyable pre-production units were produced.
MiG-31D
Two aircraft were designated as Type 31D and were manufactured as dedicated anti-satellite models with ballast in the nose instead of radars, flat fuselage undersurface (i.e. no recessed weapon system bays) and had large winglets above and below the wing-tips. Equipped with Vympel ASAT missiles.[78] Two prototypes were built.
MiG-31LL
Special modification used as a flying laboratory for testing of ejection seats during flight.
MiG-31 01DZ
Two-seat all weather, all altitude interceptor. Designated as MiG-31 01DZ when fitted with air-to-air refueling probe.[78] One hundred produced of DZ variant.[79]
MiG-31B
Second production batch with upgraded avionics and in-flight refueling probe introduced in 1990. Its development was the result of the Soviet discovery that Phazotronradar division engineer Adolf Tolkachev had sold information on advanced radars to the West. A new version of the compromised radar was hastily developed.[80] MiG-31B also have the improved ECM and EW equipment with integration of improved R-33S missiles. Long range navigation system compatible with Loran/Omega and Chaka ground stations added. This model replaced the 01DZ models in late 1990.[78]
MiG-31E
Export version of the MiG-31B with simplified avionics. Never entered in serial production.[78]
MiG-31BS
Designation applied to type 01DZ when converted to MiG-31B standard.[78]
MiG-31BM
After passing state testing in 2008, this modernized variant of MiG-31B was approved for introduction into air force of Russia. 50 planes are modified to the MiG-31BM (Bolshaya Modernizatsiya/Big Modernization) standard, in accordance with the 2011 contract.[81] The efficiency of the modernized MiG-31BM is 2.6 times greater than the basic MiG-31.[82] The MiG-31BМ's maximum detection range for air targets was increased in the upgrade to 320 km (200 mi). It had the ability to automatically track up to ten targets, and the latest units can track up to 24 targets and simultaneously engage up to eight targets. The on-board Argon-K is replaced with the new Baget 55-06 computer[83] that selects four targets of the highest priority, which simultaneously are engaged by long-range R-33S air-to-air missiles.[84] A new long range missile R-37 (missile) with speed of Mach 6 and range up to 400 km (250 mi) is developed during the modernization process for use with the newly modernized MiG-31.[83] The MiG-31BM has a multi-role capability, and is capable of using anti-radar, air-to-ship and air-to-ground missiles. Some of its avionics are unified with the MiG-29SMT. It also has a refueling probe.[85] MiG-31BM set a sustained flight record for the model while spending seven hours and four minutes in the air while covering the distance of 8,000 km (5,000 mi).[86]
MiG-31BSM
An upgrade of the BS version, it is the latest modernization variant first time contracted in 2014 for modernization of 60 aircraft, it is very similar in some aspects to the BM standard. Unlike the BS standard, aircraft modernized into the BSM standard are equipped with air refueling probe. Improvements were made to the aircraft canopy, where new and better heat resistant glass was used, thus enabling the MiG-31BSM to fly with cruise speed of 3,000 km/h (1,900 mph) at long distances without any damage. Furthermore, new faster central computer Baget-55-06 is used with addition of multi-functional displays, one for the pilot and three for the weapons operator-navigator. Also there is a new set of navigation equipment. The MiG-31BSM has multi-role capability with ability to use anti-radar, anti-ship and air-to-ground missiles. Main visible difference between the BS and BSM standards is adding of the rear-view periscope above the front cockpit canopy.[87]
MiG-31K
Modified MiG-31BM variant able to carry the hypersonic Kh-47M2 KinzhalALBM. Ten aircraft were modified by May 2018.[88] With this modification and with removed APU for air-to-air missiles, the aircraft gained a sole role of an attack aircraft.[89][90]
MiG-31F
Planned fighter-bomber intended for use with TV, radar and laser-guided ASM weapon systems. Never entered serial production.[78]
Proposed modification for air launch to orbit of small spacecraft with a payload of 160 kg (350 lb) to 300 km (190 mi) altitude or 120 kg (260 lb) to 600 km (370 mi) altitude orbit.[91]
MiG-31 (Izdeliye 08)
MiG-31 modified into a launch-platform for the Izdeliye 293Burevestnikanti-satellite missile. At least two prototypes are converted. Tests from September 2018.[92]
929th V.P. Chkalova State Flight Test Centre (Akhtubinsk)[96]
From 85[97] to 131[98] MiG-31BM in inventory as of 2020. Deliveries of updated aircraft drawn from older models stocks continue as of 2023.[99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109] Ten jets have been modified to the MiG-31K version and carry the Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missile as of May 2018.[88] With this modification and with removed APU for air-to-air missiles, the aircraft gained a sole role of an attack aircraft.[89][90]
On 4 April 1984, a MiG-31 crashed while on a test flight, killing Mikoyan chief test pilot and Hero of the Soviet Union, Aleksandr Vasilyevich Fedotov and his navigator V. Zaitsev.[112]
On 26 April 2017, a MiG-31 crashed after it was accidentally hit by "friendly fire" during a training session near the Telembaproving ground in Russian Far East.[113] This occurred during a training exercise over the Telemba proving ground in Buryatia; both crew members ejected successfully.[114] While Russian state media did not offer any details, independent investigators discovered from a leaked government document that the aircraft was shot down by an R-33 missile fired from another MiG-31 and that pilot error from both airplanes was at fault. The report also suggested problems with the Zaslon-AM radar and Baget-55 fire control system that might increase the risk of more accidental shootdowns.[115]
On 16 April 2020, a MiG-31 interceptor of the Kazakh Air Force crashed in the country's Karaganda region.[116][importance?]
On 2 December 2022, a MiG-31 of the Russian Aerospace Forces crashed during a training flight in the far eastern Primorsky Region.[118][importance?]
On 26 April 2023, a MiG-31 of the Russian Aerospace Forces crashed during a training flight in northern Murmansk. The pilots reportedly ejected and survived.[119][importance?]
On 4 July 2023, a MiG-31 of the Russian Aerospace Forces crashed during a training flight over Avacha Bay.[120][importance?]
Specifications (MiG-31)
MiG-31 3-view drawingMiG-31E landing, with brake chute deployedMiG-31BM take-off with afterburner
Data fromGreat Book of Modern Warplanes,[2] Mikoyan,[121]Combat Aircraft since 1945,[122] airforce-technology.com,[123] deagel.com[124]
General characteristics
Crew: 2 (pilot and weapons systems officer)
Length: 22.62 m (74 ft 3 in)
Wingspan: 13.456 m (44 ft 2 in)
Height: 6.456 m (21 ft 2 in)
Wing area: 61.6 m2 (663 sq ft)
Empty weight: 21,820 kg (48,105 lb)
Gross weight: 41,000 kg (90,390 lb)
Max takeoff weight: 46,200 kg (101,854 lb)
Fuel capacity: 35,550 lb (16,130 kg) internals, plus optional external fuel tanks[35]
Powerplant: 2 × Soloviev D-30F6 afterburningturbofan engines, 93 kN (21,000 lbf) thrust each dry, 152 kN (34,000 lbf) with afterburner
Performance
Maximum speed: 3,000 km/h (1,900 mph, 1,600 kn) / Mach 2.83 at 21,500 m (70,500 ft)
1,500 km/h (930 mph; 810 kn) / Mach 1.21 at low altitude
Hardpoints: 4 × semi-recessed under the fuselage and 4 × underwing pylons with capacity of up to 9,000 kg (20,000 lb) of ordnance[citation needed] , with provisions to carry combinations of:
^Siminski, Jacek (5 March 2014). "MiG working on a new interceptor, capable of Mach 4". The Aviationist. Archived from the original on 2014-03-05. The Russian Armed Forces are working on the MiG-41, a new supersonic fighter based on the MiG-31 Foxhound.
^"МиГ-31: реальность и перспективы" [MiG-31: reality and prospects]. Military Industrial Courier (in Russian). 30 April 2013. Archived from the original on 2014-12-21. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
^"МиГ-31БМ". airwar.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2015-07-09. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
^ ab"МиГ-31БМ получат новую ракету" [MiG-31BM will receive a new missile]. dokwar.ru (in Russian). 21 December 2012. Archived from the original on 2014-10-27. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
^Markin, Nik (28 November 2014). "ОАК разделит заказ на МиГ-31" [UAC Will Share Order For MiG-31]. AviaPort.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2018-12-05. Retrieved 2018-12-29.
Eden, Paul (2004). "Mikoyan MiG-25 'Foxbat' & Mikoyan MiG-31 'Foxhound'". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books. ISBN1-904687-84-9.
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