The volcano has been active for around 1.3 million years and has a long-lived lava lake in its inner summit crater that has been present since at least the early 1970s.
On 28 November 1979 Air New ZealandFlight 901 crashed on Mount Erebus killing all 257 people on board.
Geology and volcanology
Anorthoclase crystal (45 mm long) from Mount Erebus
Mount Erebus is the world's southernmost active volcano. It is the current eruptive centre of the Erebus hotspot. The summit contains a persistent convecting phonolitic lava lake, one of five long-lasting lava lakes on Earth. Characteristic eruptive activity consists of Strombolian eruptions from the lava lake or from one of several subsidiary vents, all within the volcano's inner crater.[5][6] The volcano is scientifically remarkable in that its relatively low-level and unusually persistent eruptive activity enables long-term volcanological study of a Strombolian eruptive system very close (hundreds of metres) to the active vents, a characteristic shared with only a few volcanoes on Earth, such as Stromboli in Italy. Scientific study of the volcano is also facilitated by its proximity to McMurdo Station (U.S.) and Scott Base (New Zealand), both sited on the same island around 35 km away.
Mount Erebus is classified as a polygeneticstratovolcano. The bottom half of the volcano is a shield and the top half is a stratocone. The composition of the current eruptive products of Erebus are anorthoclase-porphyritictephritic phonolite and phonolite, which are the bulk of exposed lava flow on the volcano. The oldest eruptive products consist of relatively undifferentiated and nonviscousbasanite lavas that form the low broad platform shield of Erebus. Slightly younger basanite and phonotephrite lavas crop out on Fang Ridge – an eroded remnant of an early Erebus volcano – and at other isolated locations on the flanks of Erebus. Erebus is the world's only presently erupting phonolite volcano.[7]
Lava flows of more viscous phonotephrite and trachyte erupted after the basanite. The upper slopes of Mount Erebus are dominated by steeply dipping (about 30°) tephritic phonolite lava flows with large-scale flow levees. A conspicuous break in slope around 3,200 m ASL calls attention to a summit plateau representing a caldera. The summit caldera was created by an explosive VEI-6 eruption that occurred 18,000 ± 7,000 years ago.[8] It is filled with small volume tephritic phonolite and phonolite lava flows. In the center of the summit caldera is a small, steep-sided cone composed primarily of decomposed lava bombs and a large deposit of anorthoclase crystals known as Erebus crystals. The active lava lake in this summit cone undergoes continuous degassing.
Following studies conducted in the early 1990s, it was found that Mount Erebus releases small amounts of gold crystals in the gases produced from the volcano; these crystals range in size from 20 to 60 micrometres. It is estimated that around 80 grams of gold are released by the volcano in this manner each day.[9]
Researchers spent more than three months during the 2007–08 field season installing an atypically dense array of seismometers around Mount Erebus to listen to waves of energy generated by small, controlled blasts from explosives they buried along its flanks and perimeter, and to record scattered seismic signals generated by lava lake eruptions and local ice quakes. By studying the refracted and scattered seismic waves, the scientists produced an image of the uppermost (top few km) of the volcano to understand the geometry of its "plumbing" and how the magma rises to the lava lake.
[10][11] These results demonstrated a complex upper-volcano conduit system with appreciable upper-volcano magma storage to the northwest of the lava lake at depths hundreds of meters below the surface.
Ice fumaroles
Mount Erebus is notable for its numerous ice fumaroles – ice towers that form around gases that escape from vents in the surface.[12] The ice caves associated with the fumaroles are dark, in polar alpine environments starved in organics and with oxygenated hydrothermal circulation in highly reducing host rock. The life is sparse, mainly bacteria and fungi. This makes it of special interest for studying oligotrophs – organisms that can survive on minimal amounts of resources.
The caves on Erebus are of special interest for astrobiology,[13] as most surface caves are influenced by human activities, or by organics from the surface brought in by animals (e.g. bats and birds) or ground water.[14] The caves at Erebus are at high altitude, yet accessible for study. Some of the caves can reach temperatures of 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit), and with light near the cave mouths, in some caves covered by thin overlying ice the light reach even deeper, is sufficient to sustain an ecosystem of flora and fauna consisting of moss, algae, arthropods and nematodes.[15]
They are dynamic systems that collapse and rebuild, but persist over decades. The air inside the caves has 80 to 100% humidity, and up to 3% carbon dioxide (CO2), and some carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), but almost no methane (CH4) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Many of them are completely dark, so cannot support photosynthesis. Organics can only come from the atmosphere, or from ice algae that grow on the surface in summer, which may eventually find their way into the caves through burial and melting. As a result, most micro-organisms there are chemolithoautotrophic i.e. microbes that get all of their energy from chemical reactions with the rocks, and that do not depend on any other lifeforms to survive. The organisms survive using CO2 fixation and some may use CO oxidization for the metabolism. The main types of microbe found there are Chloroflexota and Acidobacteriota.[16][17] In 2019, the Marsden Fund granted nearly NZ$1 million to the University of Waikato and the University of Canterbury to study the micro-organisms in the geothermal fumaroles.[18]
The mountain was surveyed in December 1912 by a science party from Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova expedition, who also collected geological samples. Two of the camp sites they used have been recognised for their historic significance:
Upper “Summit Camp” site (HSM 89) consists of part of a circle of rocks, which were probably used to weight the tent valances.
Lower “Camp E” site (HSM 90) consists of a slightly elevated area of gravel, as well as some aligned rocks, which may have been used to weight the tent valances.
Mount Erebus' summit crater rim was first achieved by members of Sir Ernest Shackleton's party; Professor Edgeworth David, Sir Douglas Mawson, Dr Alister Mackay, Jameson Adams, Dr Eric Marshall and Phillip Brocklehurst (who did not reach the summit), in 1908. Its first known solo ascent and the first winter ascent was accomplished by British mountaineer Roger Mear on 7 June 1985, a member of the "In the Footsteps of Scott" expedition.[22] On 19–20 January 1991, Charles J. Blackmer, an iron-worker for many years at McMurdo Station and the South Pole, accomplished a solo ascent in about 17 hours completely unsupported, by snow mobile and on foot.[23][24]
Aerial view of Mount Erebus craters
Robotic exploration
In 1992, the inside of the volcano was explored by Dante I, an eight legged tethered robotic explorer.[25]Dante was designed to acquire gas samples from the magma lake inside the inner crater of Mount Erebus to understand the chemistry better through the use of the on-board gas chromatograph, as well as measuring the temperature inside the volcano and the radioactivity of the materials present in such volcanoes. Dante successfully scaled a significant portion of the crater before technical difficulties emerged with the fibre-optic cable used for communications between the walker and base station. Since Dante had not yet reached the bottom of the crater, no data of volcanic significance was recorded. The expedition proved to be highly successful in terms of robotic and computer science, and was possibly the first expedition by a robotic platform to Antarctica.
Air New Zealand Flight 901 was a scheduled sightseeing service from Auckland Airport in New Zealand to Antarctica and return with a scheduled stop at Christchurch Airport to refuel before returning to Auckland.[26] The Air New Zealand flyover service, for the purposes of Antarctic sightseeing, was operated with McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 aircraft and began in February 1977. The flight crashed into Mount Erebus on November 28, 1979, killing all 257 people on board. Passenger photographs taken seconds before the collision ruled out the "flying in a cloud" theory, showing perfectly clear visibility well beneath the cloud base, with landmarks 13 miles (21 km) to the left and 10 miles (16 km) to the right of the aircraft visible.[27] The mountain directly ahead was lit by sunlight shining from directly behind the aircraft through the cloud deck above, resulting in a lack of shadows that made Mount Erebus effectively invisible against the overcast sky beyond in a classic whiteout (more accurately, "flat-light") phenomenon.[28] Further investigation of the crash showed a navigational error in flight documentation by Air New Zealand and a cover-up that resulted in about $100 million in lawsuits. Air New Zealand discontinued its flyovers of Antarctica. Its final flight was on February 17, 1980. During the Antarctic summer, snow melt on the flanks of Mount Erebus continually reveals debris from the crash that is visible from the air.[26]
Craters
Satellite picture of Mount Erebus showing glow from its persistent lava lake
77°31′37″S167°09′55″E / 77.527048°S 167.16524°E / -77.527048; 167.16524.
The topographic feature that embraces the crater within the floor of Main Crater, at the summit of Mount Erebus.
Inner Crater contains an active anorthoclase-phonolite lava lake.
The name derives from the fact that the crater is within the Main Crater of Mount Erebus.[30]
Mount Erebus has several named features on its slopes, including a number of rock formations.[33]
Features around the summit of the mountain include:
Helo Cliffs
77°30′12″S167°07′01″E / 77.503455°S 167.116913°E / -77.503455; 167.116913.
Prominent cliffs at about 3,525 metres (11,565 ft) high on the north rim of the summit caldera of Mount Erebus. The name derives from a nearby United States Coast Guard (USCG) HH-52A helicopter (CG 1404) which lost power and crashed while enroute from McMurdo Station to Cape Bird, Jan. 9, 1971. The four crew and passengers were not injured, but the helicopter was abandoned because of its location.[34]
77°31′42″S167°08′47″E / 77.528236°S 167.146427°E / -77.528236; 167.146427.
A concave slope, about 3,650 metres (11,980 ft) high, just south of Crystal Slope on the west side of the summit cone of Mount Erebus. The feature is the site of a slump which has occurred off the crater rim. It is also a former camp site used by summit parties. A small hut is located on the upper part of the slope.[37]
77°31′16″S167°08′49″E / 77.521068°S 167.146857°E / -77.521068; 167.146857
A prominent outcropping of jumbled rocks, 3,633 metres (11,919 ft) high, formed as a lava flow on the northwest upper slope of the active cone of Mount Erebus.
The feature is near a camp site used mainly in the 1970s by teams working at the summit of the volcano.
So named because many working at the camp suffered from nausea due to high elevation mountain sickness.[40]
Northern features
Features on the northern slopes include:
Abbott Peak
77°26′S167°00′E / 77.433°S 167.000°E / -77.433; 167.000.
Pyramidal peak on the north side of Mount Erebus,
between it and Mount Bird. Charted by the British Antarctic Expedition under Scott,
1910-13, and named for Petty Officer George P. Abbott, Royal Navy, a
member of the expedition.[41]
Krall Crags
77°27′14″S166°48′57″E / 77.454003°S 166.815833°E / -77.454003; 166.815833.
Two rock summits rising to over 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high on the northwest slope of Mount Erebus. The feature is 1.2 nautical miles (2.2 km; 1.4 mi) west-northwest of Abbott Peak. At the suggestion of P.R. Kyle, named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) (2000) after Sarah Krall who worked over 10 years in providing support to science in Antarctica. She was cook and camp manager at the lower Erebus Hut during the 1992-93 NSF-NASA Dante robot experiment on Mount Erebus. She also managed the food room at McMurdo Station, was the hovercraft pilot, and has also been a helicopter technician.[42]
Tarr Nunatak
77°28′41″S166°53′17″E / 77.478006°S 166.888183°E / -77.478006; 166.888183
A nunatak rising to about 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) high on the northwest slope of Mount Erebus.
The feature is 1.2 nautical miles (2.2 km; 1.4 mi) south-southwest of Abbott Peak.
Named by New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) (2000) after Sergeant L.W. (Wally) Tarr, Royal New Zealand Air Force, aircraft mechanic with the New Zealand contingent of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (CTAE), 1956-58.[43]
Fang Ridge
77°29′S167°12′E / 77.483°S 167.200°E / -77.483; 167.200.
A conspicuous ridge on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus.
It is a much denuded portion of the original caldera rim left by a catastrophic eruption.
So named, probably for its curved shape, by Frank Debenham of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13, who made a plane table survey in 1912.[44]
The Fang
77°29′09″S167°12′13″E / 77.485943°S 167.203614°E / -77.485943; 167.203614.
A distinctive toothlike peak, 3,159 metres (10,364 ft) high, which forms the highest point of Fang Ridge.
Descriptively named by Frank Debenham of British Antarctic Expedition (British Antarctic Expedition), 1910-13, who made a plane table survey of the vicinity in 1912.[45]
Millennium Peak
77°30′24″S167°22′54″E / 77.506569°S 167.381754°E / -77.506569; 167.381754.
A peak rising to about 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus, 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) east-northeast of the Erebus summit.
So named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in the millennium year 2000.[46]
Coleman Peak
77°29′17″S167°28′39″E / 77.488132°S 167.477419°E / -77.488132; 167.477419.
A peak rising to about 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus, 3.6 nautical miles (6.7 km; 4.1 mi) east of the summit of Fang Ridge. Named by the New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) (2000) after Father Coleman, a New Zealand chaplain, who traveled to Antarctica many times with the United States Antarctic Program.[47]
Te Puna Roimata Peak
77°26′51″S167°33′41″E / 77.447407°S 167.561469°E / -77.447407; 167.561469.
A peak about 890 metres (2,920 ft) high, located 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km; 1.7 mi) west of Terra Nova Glacier and 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) south of Lewis Bay on the lower northeast slope of Mount Erebus.
On November 28, 1979, a New Zealand DC10 aircraft on a scenic flight from Auckland crashed near this peak claiming the lives of 237 passengers from eight countries and a crew of 20.
In 1987, a stainless steel memorial cross was erected west of the peak.
Te Puna Roimata Peak (meaning spring of tears) was named by the New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) in 2000.[48]
Southern features
Features of the southern slopes of the mountain include:
Hoopers Shoulder
77°32′S166°53′E / 77.533°S 166.883°E / -77.533; 166.883.
An independent cone at an elevation of 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high on the west slopes of Mount Erebus.
From McMurdo Sound it appears as a perfect pyramid of black rock, standing out as a splendid mark against the background of the ice and almost on a line from Cape Royds to the crater of Mount Erebus.
The cone itself is about 100 metres (330 ft) high high and is surrounded by a deep moat or ditch, caused by the sweeping action of strong winds.
It was named by F. Debenham on the second ascent of Mount Erebus for F.J. Hooper, a steward of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13.
Hooper was one of the party making the second ascent.[49]
Cashman Crags
77°32′26″S166°51′02″E / 77.540504°S 166.850438°E / -77.540504; 166.850438
Two rock summits at about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) high on the west slope of Mount Erebus.
The feature is 0.6 nautical miles (1.1 km; 0.69 mi) southwest of Hoopers Shoulder.
At the suggestion of P.R. Kyle, named by United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) (2000) after Katherine V. Cashman, United States Antarctic Research Program (USARP) team member on Mount Erebus in 1978-79 while a Fulbright scholar at Victoria University of Wellington; worked again on Mount Erebus, 1988-89; later Professor of Geology, University of Oregon.[50]
Williams Cliff
77°35′S166°47′E / 77.583°S 166.783°E / -77.583; 166.783.
A prominent rock cliff that stands out from the ice-covered southwest slopes of Mount Erebus, situated 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) east of Cape Barne.
This rock cliff was mapped by the British Antarctic Expedition under Scott, 1910-13, and identified simply as "Bold Cliff on maps resulting from that expedition.
It was named Williams Cliff by the US-ACAN in 1964 to commemorate Richard T. Williams, who losi: his life when his tractor broke through the ice at McMurdo Sound in January 1956. [51]
Tech Crags
77°36′49″S166°46′02″E / 77.613497°S 166.767316°E / -77.613497; 166.767316.
A narrow broken ridge 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) south of Williams Cliff on Ross Island. The feature rises to about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) high and marks a declivity along the north flank of broad Turks Head Ridge, from which ice moves to Pukaru Icefalls. Named by US-ACAN (2000) after the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, known as New Mexico Tech. From 1981, many Tech students under the direction of Philip R. Kyle, have undertaken graduate research projects (thesis and dissertation) on Mount Erebus.[52]
Three Sisters Cones
77°34′S166°58′E / 77.567°S 166.967°E / -77.567; 166.967.
Three aligned cones at an elevation of about 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high on the southwest slopes of Mount Erebu.
Named by members of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13, under Scott.[53]
77°38′20″S166°54′28″E / 77.638772°S 166.90775°E / -77.638772; 166.90775.
A rock bluff rising to about 600 metres (2,000 ft) high on the southeast margin of Turks Head Ridge. The bluff is 1.1 nautical miles (2.0 km; 1.3 mi) east-northeast of Grazyna Bluff. At the suggestion of P.R. Kyle, named by US-ACAN (2000) after Richard Esser, a member of New Mexico Tech field parties on Mount Erebus in the 1993-94 and 1994-95 seasons; later a technician in the New Mexico Geochronology Lab at NM Tech, where he has dated many rocks from Antarctica.[55]
Grazyna Bluff
77°38′34″S166°49′24″E / 77.642825°S 166.823222°E / -77.642825; 166.823222.
A rock bluff rising to about 600 metres (2,000 ft) high in the south part of Turks Head Ridge.
The bluff is 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km; 1.7 mi) north-northeast of Turks Head.
At the suggestion of P.R. Kyle, named by US-ACAN (2000) after Grazyna Zreda-Gostynska, who worked on Mount Erebus in 1989-90 as a member of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology team. A Ph.D. student at NMIMT, she completed her doctoral dissertation on the gas emissions from Mount Erebus.[56]
Glacier Ridge
77°35′38″S167°16′35″E / 77.593989°S 167.276256°E / -77.593989; 167.276256.
A broad north–south ridge, 4.5 nautical miles (8.3 km; 5.2 mi) long and 0.8 nautical miles (1.5 km; 0.92 mi) wide, on the south slopes of Mount Erebus. Completely ice covered, the ridge descends from about 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) high to 600 metres (2,000 ft) high, terminating 2.1 nautical miles (3.9 km; 2.4 mi) northwest of Tyree Head.
In association with the names of expedition ships grouped on this island, named after United States Coast Guard Cutter (USCGC) Glacier, an icebreaker which for three decades, 1955-56 to 1986-87, supported scientific activity in Antarctica and Ross Sea on virtually an annual basis.
From 1955-56, Glacier operated as a US Navy ship.
Along with other Navy icebreakers, Glacier was transferred to the US Coast Guard fleet, June 1966, from which she operated until decommissioned, June 1987.[57]
Glaciers
Erebus Glacier Tongue
Fang Glacier
77°29′S167°06′E / 77.483°S 167.100°E / -77.483; 167.100.
A glacier on the west side of Fang Ridge, separating the old and new craters of Mount Erebus.
Charted by Frank Debenham of the BrAE, 1910–13, and named by him in association with Fang Ridge.[44]
77°36′S166°26′E / 77.600°S 166.433°E / -77.600; 166.433.
Steep glacier which descends from the west slopes of Mount Erebus and terminates on the west side of Ross Island between Cape Barne and Cape Evans where it forms a steep ice cliff.
Discovered by the BrNAE, 1901–04, under Scott.
Named by the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907–09, under Shackleton after nearby Cape Barne.[59]
^Kyle, P. R., ed. (1994). Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica. Antarctic Research Series. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union. ISBN0-87590-875-6. OCLC1132108108.
^Harris, Rosie (2019). "Micro-organisms in the volcanic vents of Erebus - a key to life on other planets?". Antarctic. 38 (3 & 4): 14–15. ISSN0003-5327.
^Mear, Roger; Swan, Robert; Fulcher, Lindsay (1987). A Walk to the Pole: To the Heart of Antarctica in the Footsteps of Scott. Crown. pp. 95–104. ISBN978-0-517-56611-4. OCLC16092953.
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