Ndombolo
A woman dances ndombolo at the Anoumabo Urban Music Festival in 2023
Stylistic originsSoukous
Cultural origins1990s
Typical instrumentsGuitar, horn, and drum
Regional scenes
Kenya, Rwanda, Madagascar, Tanzania, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Nigeria, Angola, Togo, Niger, Central African Republic, Gabon
Other topics
Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
General topics
Genres
Media and performance
Music festivals
Music media
Kinshasa Symphony
Nationalistic and patriotic songs
National anthem
"Debout Congolais"
Regional music
Related areas
Other regions

Francophone Africa

Ndombolo, also known as dombolo, is a genre of dance music originating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[1][2][3][4] Derived from soukous in the 1990s, with fast-paced hip-swaying dance rhythms, often accompanied by upbeat, percussion-driven music, the style became widespread in the mid-1990s and the subsequent decade, dominating dancefloors in central, eastern, and western Africa. It inspired West African popular music, coupé-décalé, Kuduro, and East African dance music.[1][4][5][6][7]

Ndombolo customarily features lead vocalists, backup vocalists, guitars, horns, drums, and synthesized sounds.[8] The lyrics often explore themes of human relations, marriage, courtship, trickery, disappointment, and Congolese sociopolitical culture.[9][10][11] Prominent musicians such as Papa Wemba, Dany Engobo, Koffi Olomide, Werrason, Awilo Longomba, Quartier Latin International, Général Defao, Aurlus Mabélé, Extra Musica, Wenge Musica, and Wenge Musica Maison Mère played a pivotal role in popularizing the genre.[11][12][13][14][15]

Etymology

Etymologically, "ndombolo" derives from Kikongo, meaning "to ask or solicit".[16] The lexicologist Arizona M. Baongoli, specializing in Lingala, expounds that "ndombolo" encapsulates a genre of Congolese dance, literally meaning "gorilla" or "chimpanzee".[16] The dance choreography involves hip gyrations, showcasing the posterior while executing forward and backward movements. Baongoli posits that this stylized dance mimics gorillas' and chimpanzees' gait, dance, or movements during courtship rituals.[16] The Parisian writer Milau K. Lutumba elucidates that this metaphorical construct emerged as a collective expression of the Congolese populace's hope for an end to the brutality, terror, injustice, and misery perpetuated during the reign of president Mobutu Sese Seko.[17] The genesis of the term coincided with Mobutu's ouster from power by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila.[17] In the aftermath of Mobutu's exile in May 1997, musicians immortalized Kabila as the embodiment of "ndombolo". Lutumba notes that this symbolic renaming marked a turning point in the country's history, signifying a desire for positive change and a departure from the oppressive era.[17] The term took on additional layers of meaning when president Kabila, seen for the first time on television in 1996, was immediately identified as a ndombolo—a dwarf, a characterization stemming from the extensive time he spent in the bush as a guerrilla fighter, highlighting his pliability, elasticity, and strategic intelligence, reminiscent of the smart monkeys often depicted in African tales.[17] In African folklore, the monkey character is portrayed as an intelligent figure who, through wit and cunning, prevails over larger, stronger animals such as lions and leopards.[17]

Form

Ndombolo's dance style is characterized by convulsive and fast-paced hip movements with intricate steps, combining floating arm movements, whirling body rotations, and ape-like poses.[18][19] Men typically bend low and box in the air while women undulate their hips and bottoms with plenty of facial expressions.[18][20][21] The hip-swaying is often accompanied by synchronized footwork and precise leg movements while maintaining a relatively stationary upper body. Ndombolo is usually danced in pairs or groups. Dancers form close connections with their partners and engage in coquettish movements that reflect the connection present in the accompanying music.[18][22][20]

Meanwhile, the musical elements unfold in a frenetic sebène, a cyclic repetition of a certain number of notes during the passage of two chords, with an emphasis on the rhythm guitar.[19][23] This repetitive soundscape gains momentum as the tempo intensifies, with the guitarist incorporating gimmicks and caesuras to craft a distinctive sound.[24] The role of the guitarist is shared with an atalaku, a singer who, from the music's outset, directs the percussion, galvanizes the audience, and augments assertive rhythms through impassioned MC harangue.[24][19] The hypnotic sway of atalaku persists through powerful jolts of guitar and drums, emerging as the central pivot around which the rhythm revolves.[24]

History

Origins and foreign label takeover

See also: Soukous

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley Rochereau, and Zaïko Langa Langa revolutionized soukous by removing the horn section and wind instruments and elevating the snare drum and electric guitars.[25][26][20] Nelson George notes that this transformation resulted in a high-octane auditory quality that produced hits and dance crazes that gained popularity across Africa and major European cities, launching the careers of many homegrown artists, most notably world music singer Papa Wemba.[20] However, the fiscal insolvency that befell Congolese record labels such as Parions-Congo, Parions Mondenge, International Don-Dass, and Molende Kwi Kwi following the collapse of the Mazadis, Sophinza S.P.R.L., and Izason recording labels, coupled with the transition from vinyl to compact discs, led to national phonographic production sinking into lethargy during the 1980s.[27] Foreign labels specializing in African and Caribbean music took over, starting with Sonodisc and Sonima (France). However, this also gave the Democratic Republic of the Congo a substantive platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown artists.[27]

Formation and paternity debate

Koffi Olomide and Papa Wemba in 1988

By the end of the 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, Wenge Musica, Koffi Olomide, and Général Defao joined Sonodisc, orchestrating a paradigm shift that transformed soukous into raunchy, fast-paced dance music, renaming it ndombolo.[20][28]

The genre's paternity is a subject of contentious debate, with some attributing it to Radja Kula in 1995,[29][30] and others crediting Wenge Musica.[31][32] Researcher Manda Tchebwa posits that Wenge Musica's generation was instrumental in shaping the style.[19][33]

The BBC has also credited the band, acknowledging them as the pioneers of the style, with their rapid hip movements and body swaying, occasionally accompanied by abrupt gestures.[34]

Heyday

Ndombolo quickly established itself as a popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and United States.[20][28][35] In May 1997, JB Mpiana's ndombolo-infused debut album, Feux de l'amour, became the first ndombolo album to attain a gold record, with over 150,000 copies sold. This success reverberated in Central Africa, East Africa, France, and Belgium, which in turn augmented ndombolo's visibility in francophone and anglophone countries.[36][37]

Koffi Olomide's ndombolo album Loi, released in December 1997, also secured a gold record, with 25,000 copies sold in France and 105,000 internationally.[38][39] The album's eponymous single became synonymous with ndombolo dance, making waves across Africa and France with a combination of the singer's deep baritone voice and sophisticated arrangements, blending old-school rumba and keyboard melodies and ending in a guitar climax.[40][41]

On 29 August 1998, Olomide became the first Congolese artist to sell out the Olympia Hall in Paris.[42] The concert, featuring ndombolo-infused tracks, is widely acknowledged as crucial in popularizing the genre.[42][43]

In December 1998, the Extra Musica ensemble from the Republic of the Congo released their fourth studio album, Etat-Major, marking the first ndombolo record to attain broad success in English-speaking African countries. The album's eponymous single is characterized by multi-thematic lyrics, catchy melodies, and distortion pedal guitar riffs.[44][45]

In 1999, Wenge Musica Maison Mère released their ndombolo-infused certified gold album Solola Bien, which experienced immediate success in Africa and France.[46] The record's eponymous single, along with Ferré Gola's "Vita Imana", gained popularity in France, and the band was invited to perform at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy in Paris.[47][48][49]

Censorship and resurgence

Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rise to power in Congo prompted speculation and misinformation, with rumors of impending bans on miniskirts, women's pants, and love song on airwaves, as well as the closure of nightclubs.[50][51] In 1998, Libération reported a perceptible decrease in the number of soukous orchestras in Kinshasa, along with strict regulation of public spaces.[50] Only a few nightclubs, including le Circus, le Seguin, le Gin Fizz, l'Imprévu, l'Atmosphère, le Savanana, and le M16 remained accessible for public revelry.[50]

By the early 2000s, numerous African television stations banned ndombolo due to its perceived "pornographic" nature, alleging that it compromised youth morality. In Cameroon, ndombolo faced prohibition for being deemed excessively erotic and obscene. Critics contended that Cameroon's imposition emanated from the belief that ndombolo encroached upon local music genres like makossa and bikutsi.[52][53] By January 2004, the ban extended to Congolese state-operated radio and television outlets.[53][54] In Senegal, certain hosts of Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise faced censure as a consequence of their association with ndombolo.[54] Paradoxically, despite prohibitions, record sales surged, and new releases continued to dominate discos, bars, and clubs across Africa, with its trademark bass, tingling guitars, and soaring falsettos. In Europe, the sound became synonymous with African music, catapulting artists like Papa Wemba into high demand.[55][56]

Olomide released his album Monde Arabe in December 2004, gaining traction for blending ndombolo and Congolese rumba, accentuated by acoustic guitar interludes.[57] Meanwhile, Fally Ipupa's "Original" became a hit in 2014, reigniting interest in the genre after prominent ndombolo artists migrated to Europe.[58][59][60][61][62][63] This was accompanied by Olomide's subsequent releases, including "Selfie" (2015)[64][65] and "Tshou Tshou Tshou" (2017).[66]

Ya Levis Dalwear in 2022

In June 2018, BM released a remix of his single "Rosalina", featuring Awilo Longomba, which gave rise to the "#RosalinaChallenge" trend on TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube. This trend features exhilarating ndombolo motions synchronized with pulsating Congolese rhythms, encapsulating the precise articulation of the entire physical form, from limbs to waist.[67][68][69][70][71] "Ecole", from Fally's November 2018 album, Control, introduced a new dance known as the "Ecole dance", synonymous with ndombolo dance moves, embraced by numerous dancers on social networks.[72][73][74][75]

Emerging ndombolo artists like Innoss'B, Robinio Mundibu, Gaz Mawete, and the Paris-based Ya Levis Dalwear surfaced. In September 2019, Inoss'B released a remix of his song "Yope", featuring Tanzanian singer Diamond Platnumz, which became one of the most-viewed ndombolo songs on Youtube as well as the first song in East and Central Africa to surpass 150 Million views.[76][77] In November 2020, Diamond Platnumz released a successful crossover ndombolo-infused Swahili song, "Waah", featuring Olomide. "Waah" became the first Sub-Saharan African song to reach two million views on YouTube in less than 24 hours.[78][79][80] In June 2021, Tanzanian singer Ali Kiba released his single "Ndombolo", featuring K2ga, Tommy Flavour, and Abdu Kiba, which was later included as a sample song for the ndombolo music genre on the Grammy Awards website.[81]

Influence

French rap

See also: French hip hop

Ndombolo has strongly impacted French hip hop from the Congolese diaspora.[40] The group Bisso Na Bisso pioneered the infusion of Congolese guitar patterns and rhythms into French rap in late 1990's.[82]

French rapper Naza pioneered the infusion of ndombolo rhythms into French rap. In September 2017, he released his Platinum-certified album Incroyable, predominantly blending ndombolo rhythms. Adorned with lead guitar tributes to musical collectives like Wenge Musica, Extra Musica, Quartier Latin, and Viva La Musica, the record emerged as a defining ndombolo-rap fusion in France.[83][84][85] On the single "Moi je vérifie", featuring Dadju and Aya Nakamura, Naza introduced a singing style synchronized with the rhythm of a dry[clarification needed] guitar.[83] This success paved the way for subsequent hits like Dadju's "Mafuzzy Style" (2018), Belgian rapper Damso's "Même issue", and Maître Gims with "Na Lingui Yo"[40][86][87][88]

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