An oak savanna is a type of savanna—or lightly forested grassland—where oaks (Quercus spp.) are the dominant trees. The terms "oakery" or "woodlands" are also used commonly, though the former is more prevalent when referencing the Mediterranean area.[1] These savannas were maintained historically through wildfires set by lightning, humans, grazing, low precipitation, and/or poor soil.
The oak savannas of the Midwestern United States form a transition zone between the arid Great Plains to the west and the moist broadleaf and mixed forests to the east. Oak savannas are found in a wide belt from northern Minnesota and southern Wisconsin, down through Iowa, Illinois, northern and central Missouri, eastern Kansas, and central Oklahoma to north-central Texas, with isolated pockets further east around the Great Lakes including Ontario.[4] The bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) is the dominant species in northern oak savannas, although black oak (Quercus velutina), white oak (Quercus alba), and Hill's oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) are sometimes present. The dominant tree in the south is usually black oak, although the chinquapin oak (Quercus muhlenbergii), post oak (Quercus stellata), and black-jack oak (Quercus marilandica) are also common. The flora of the herbaceous layer generally consists of species associated with tallgrass prairies, both grasses and flowering plants, although some woodland species may be present. There are also a few species that are unique to oak savannas.[5][6][7] Oak savannas, because of their mixture of grassland, woodland, and unique savanna species, typically have a higher plant diversity than grasslands and woodlands combined.
History
Before European settlement, the oak savanna, a characteristic fire ecology, was extensive and was often a dominant part of the ecosystem. Fires set by lightning ensured that the savanna areas did not turn into forests. Savannas normally were found next to large prairies near rolling hills and this combination of habitat was perfect for deer, bison, elk, and other grazing animals.[8] Only trees with a high tolerance for fire, principally certain oak species, were able to survive. On sandy soils, black oak (Quercus velutina) predominated. On rich soils bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) was the major tree in Midwestern North America. These savanna areas provided habitat for many animals, including American bison, elk, and white-tailed deer. Research by Granado-Díaz, Villanueva, & Colombo (2024)[9] on land manager preferences for environmental services in oak savannas offers historical insights into the evolution of conservation strategies. This study illuminates the critical role of managing understory vegetation for ecological health, integrating seamlessly with the natural fire regimes that shaped these ecosystems. These findings underscore the importance of preserving the intricate balance between fire, vegetation, and wildlife that defines the oak savanna's unique ecological identity.
The most fire-tolerant of the oak species is the bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), which is especially common in hill-country savannas in the Midwest.
Fire-tolerant bur oak savanna in Wisconsin hill country
European settlers cleared much of the savanna for agricultural use. In addition, they suppressed the fire cycle. Thus surviving pockets of savanna typically became less like savannas and more like forests or thickets. Many oak savanna plant and animal species became extinct or rare.
Prescribed burn; Wisconsin bur oak savanna
Restoration
Prescribed burn in oak savanna in Iowa
With the rise in interest in environmental conservation, restoration and preservation of surviving areas of oak savanna began. Low intensity, spring prescribed burns have been used since 1964 at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve in Minnesota in an attempt to restore the area to an oak savanna.[10] Burned areas are now more savanna like (having greater grass and forb and lower shrub and lower tree representation) than unburned areas but still have higher overstory densities than apparently existed in presettlement times. Two separate studies done by Garrastatxu et al. (2024)[11] and Encinas‐Valero et al. (2024)[12] have identified the crucial role of fungal symbionts and the tree-soil microbial system in the health of oak savannas, underlining the importance of these factors in restoration practices. This insight is pivotal, as it highlights the interconnectedness of all elements within the oak savanna ecosystem, emphasizing that successful restoration efforts must account for the complexity of biological relationships. Similarly, the study by Hsiao et al. (2024)[13] on the impact of vegetation and geology on soil nutrient storage in juniper–oak savannas emphasizes the need to consider soil health in restoration efforts. Restoration work in the US began in the 1970s in Illinois, followed by work in Wisconsin, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota.[14] The Bald Hill Natural Area in Corvallis, Oregon was established in the 1990s in part to protect oak savanna remnants.[15][16] At one point in time the oak savanna was the most common type of vegetation found in the midwest, but it is now endangered with many ecologists every year working on replacing the oak savannas that have been destroyed in the past.[17]
For centuries, the issue of oak regeneration failure has been acknowledged. Historical records, such as French ordinances dating back to the 13th century, illustrate early recognition of obstacles to oak regeneration. These ordinances required the planting of oak seedlings to prevent overharvesting, given oak's significant timber worth and adaptability.[18]
Current distribution
Presettlement there was approximately 50,000,000 acres of oak savanna in Midwestern United States, all of it being exclusively in a wide strip stretching from southwestern Michigan to eastern Nebraska and from southern Manitoba to central Texas. After Europeans arrived, fire suppression and settlement diminished the oak savannas to a fraction of their former expanse, which currently exist in many fragmented pockets throughout its native range. Valadi et al. (2023)[19] have explored the conflicting edge influences on herbaceous species in oak savannas, shedding light on the complex interactions that impact the distribution and conservation status of these ecosystems today. This research underscores the need for nuanced conservation strategies that address both the macro and microecological pressures impacting oak savanna preservation. Many sites are protected and maintained by government bodies or non-profit organizations such as The Nature Conservancy, the Wisconsin and Minnesota Departments of Natural Resources, and the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation. In the midwest, about only 30,000 acres total of oak savanna still exist. The savannas that remain are fairly small at about 100 acres and this rarity has caused them to be categorized as “globally imperilled”.[17] It is estimated that about only less than 0.02% of the original savannas remain due to human interaction and many organizations and conservations are prioritizing restoring and recreating these ecosystems in the midwest.[8]
In Europe, wood pastures, semi-open oak woodlands used for grazing, were widespread and common landscape features across the continent during the Middle Ages, but have since declined. Traditionally, they have been considered purely anthropogenic landscapes, the result of human clearing of virgin forest since the beginning of the European Neolithic. However, according to proponents of the controversial wood-pasture hypothesis, they can be viewed as functional analogs to the oak savannas that may have naturally covered large parts of Europe during the early Holocene. After the Industrial Revolution and the accompanying intensification of land use, they became rarer and were displaced by forests, open croplands, pastures, and meadows. Today, they are largely confined to small patches in western and central Europe, while intact forest pastures are still found in eastern Europe, especially Romania. In the Mediterranean region, oak savannas are still widespread, especially on the Iberian Peninsula.[24]
