Paiwan variants can be divided into the following dialect zones (Ferrell 1982:4–6).
A1 – southern and central
Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) – used in Ferrell's 1982 Paiwan Dictionary due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village, Taitung County, where Tjariḍik and "Tjuabar" (closely related to Tjavuaɬi) are also spoken.
Kapaiwanan (Su-Paiwan)
Tjuaqatsiɬay (Kachirai) – southernmost dialect
A2 – central
ɬarəkrək (Riki-riki)
Patjavaɬ (Ta-niao-wan)
B1 – northernmost
Tjukuvuɬ (Tokubun)
Kaviangan (Kapiyan)
B2 – northwestern
Tjaɬakavus (Chalaabus, Lai-yi)
Makazayazaya (Ma-chia)
B3 – east-central
Tjariḍik (Charilik)
B4 – eastern
Tjavuaɬi (Taimali)
Tjakuvukuvuɬ (Naibon, Chaoboobol)
This classification were though be corrected by Cheng 2016 as below:
Note: A village unnoted of Vuculj/Ravar is by default placed under Vuculj here.
Paridrayan group (Ravar)
Paridrayan /pariɖajan/
Tjailjaking
Tineljepan
Cavak
Tjukuvulj
Timur group
Timur
Tavatavang
Vuljulju
Sagaran (Ravar-Vuculj mixture)
Makazayazaya branch
'ulaljuc
Idra
Masilidj
Makazayazaya
Paljulj
Kazangiljan
Masisi
Kazazaljan
'apedang
Kaviyangan
Puljetji
Tjuaqau
Eastern branch
Paumeli
Tjulitjulik
Viljauljaulj
Kaljataran
Ka'aluan
Tjua'au
Sapulju
Kingku
Djumulj
Tjukuvulj
Tjagaraus branch
Payuan
Padain
Piuma
Raxekerek branch (west)
Raxekerek
Kinaximan
Tjevecekadan
Raxekerek branch (east)
Tjahiljik
Tjacuqu
Tjatjigelj
Tjaqup
Rahepaq
Kaljapitj
Qeceljing
Pacavalj
Kuvaxeng
Utjaqas
Ljupetj
Tjala'avus branch
Tjalja'avus
Calasiv
Tjana'asia
Pucunug
Vungalid
Pailjus
Phonology
Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants (/h/ is found only in loanwords, and /ʔ/ is uncommon) and 4 vowels (Ferrell 1982:7). Unlike many other Formosan languages that have merged many Proto-Austronesian phonemes, Paiwan preserves most Proto-Austronesian phonemes and is thus highly important for reconstruction purposes.
The four Paiwan vowels are /i ə a u/. /ə/ is written e in the literature.
In Northern Paiwan the palatal consonants have been lost, though this is recent and a few conservative speakers maintain them as allophonic variants (not as distinct phonemes). /ʔ/ is robust, unlike in other Paiwan dialects where its status is uncertain, as it derives from *q.
Younger speakers tend to pronounce /ʎ/ as [l]. Fricative [ɣ] is characteristic of Mudan village; elsewhere is Southern Paiwan it tends to be a trill [r], though it still varies [r ~ ɣ ~ ʁ ~ h]. Word-initial *k has become /ʔ/.
Grammar
Pronouns
The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982:14).
Paiwan Personal Pronouns
Type of Pronoun
Equational
Genitive
Non-Eq., Non-Gen.
1s.
-aken, ti-aken
ku-, ni-aken
tjanu-aken
2s.
-sun, ti-sun
su-, ni-sun
tjanu-sun
3s.
ti-madju
ni-madju
tjai-madju
1p. (incl.)
-itjen, ti-tjen
tja-, ni-tjen
tjanu-itjen
1p. (excl.)
-amen, ti-amen
nia-, ni-amen
tjanu-amen
2p.
-mun, t-mun
nu-, ni-mun
tjanu-mun
3p.
ti-a-madju
ni-a-madju
tjai-a-madju
Function words
Paiwan has 3 construction markers, which are also known as relational particles (Ferrell 1982:13).
a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia
nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia
tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = tjai, personal plural = tjaia
Other words include:
i – be at, in (place)
nu – if when
na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become
uri – definite future negative marker
uri – definite future marker
ɬa – emphasis, setting apart
Affixed adverbials include (Ferrell 1982:14):
-tiaw
nu-tiaw: tomorrow
ka-tiaw: yesterday
-sawni
nu-sawni: soon, in a little while (future)
ka-sawni: a little while ago
-ngida
nu-ngida: when? (future)
ka-ngida: when? (past)
Interjections include (Ferrell 1982:12):
ui – yes
ini- no (not do)
neka – no, not (not exist)
ai – oh! (surprise, wonder)
ai ḍivá – alas!
uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback)
ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)
Verbs
Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus (Ferrell 1982:30).
The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention (Ferrell 1982:37).
ki- (intentional)
pa- (intentional)
-m- (volitionally ambiguous)
si- (volitionally ambiguous)
ma- (non-intentional)
se- (non-intentional)
Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes (Ferrell 1982:13).
-anga: "certainly," "truly doing"
-angata: "definitely" (emphatic)
-anga: "still, yet, continuing to"
Affixes
The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982:15–27).
Prefixes
ka-: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker
ka- -an: principal, main
kaɬa- -an: time/place characterized by something
ma-ka-: go past, via; having finished
pa-ka-: go/cause to go by way of (something/place)
ka-si-: come from
ken(e)-: eat, drink, consume
ki-: get, obtain
ku-: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb)
ɬa-: belonging to a given [plant/animal] category
ɬe-: to go in the direction of
ɬia-: (have) come to be in/at
li-: have quality of
ma-: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary)
mare-: having reciprocal relationship
mare-ka-: in some general category
maɬe-: number of persons
me-: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs)
mere-: be gigantic, super-
mi-: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs)
mi- -an: pretend, claim
mu-: agent marker (certain verbs)
ka-na- -anga: every
pa-: to cause to be/occur
pe-: emerge, come into view
pi-: put in/on; do something to
pu-: have or produce; acquire
pu- -an: place where something is put or kept
ma-pu-: do nothing except ...
ra-: having to do with
r-m-a-: do at/during
r-m-a- -an: do at/in
sa-: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of
pa-sa-: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing
ki-sa-: use, utilize, employ
na-sa-: perhaps, most likely is
san(e)-: construct, work on/in
ki-sane(e)-: become/act as; one who acts as
ru-: do frequently/habitually; have many of
se-: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally
s-ar-e-: be in state/condition of (involuntary)
si-: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past
ma-si-: carry, transport
su-: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from
ki-su-: remove or have removed from oneself
ta-: past marker
tu-: similar to, like
ma-ru-: be dissimilar but of same size
tja-: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further
ki-tja-: take along for use
tjaɬa- -an: most, -est
tjara-: be definitely
tjaɬu-: reach/extend as far as
tjari-: furthest, utmost
tja-u-: to have just done
tje-: choose to do at/from
ka-tje- -an: containing
tji-: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix)
tji-a-: be/remain at
tju-: do/use separately; be/do at certain place
m-uri-: search for
Infixes
-aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; non-Kulalao
-ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; non-Kulalao
-m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words
-in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words
Suffixes
-an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus
-en: object/goal of action; object focus
-aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus
-u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative
-ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time
The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995).
Nouns
-aḷ-, -aly- 'tiny things'
-in- 'things made from plant roots'
-an 'place' (always used with another affix)
mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only)
pu- 'rich'
ḳay- 'vegetation'
sə- 'inhabitants'
cua- 'name of a tribe'
Verbs
-aŋa 'already done'
ka- 'to complete'
kə- 'to do something oneself'
ki- 'to do something to oneself'
kisu- 'to get rid of'
kicu- 'to do something separately'
maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem)
Chang, Anna Hsiou-Chuan (2006). A Reference Grammar of Paiwan (Ph.D. thesis). Australian National University. doi:10.25911/5D778712291BF. hdl:1885/10719.
Taiwan[2]
