You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons:

This IP address has been blocked from editing Wikipedia.
This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages.
Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.

The IP address or range 54.234.0.0/16 has been blocked (disabled) by ‪JJMC89‬ for the following reason(s):

The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia.
You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN.
We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you are using a corporate internet connection, switch to a different Wi-Fi network. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in.
If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption.

How to appeal if you are confident that your connection does not use a colocation provider's IP address:
If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: ((unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~)). You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider.

Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator.

This block will expire on 05:36, 2 January 2025.

Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page, as well as email administrators and other editors.

For information on how to proceed, please read the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful.

Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked
Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis. The block was made by ‪Jon Kolbert‬. The reason given is Open proxy/Webhost: See the help page if you are affected .
- Start of block: 05:40, 21 February 2024
- Expiry of block: 05:40, 21 February 2029
Your current IP address is 54.234.187.160. The blocked range is 54.234.0.0/16. Please include all above details in any queries you make. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki. You could also send an email to the stewards VRT queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details.

You can view and copy the source of this page:

((Cleanup|date=November 2023|reason=This article is written in a way that suggests phagomimicry only applies to sea hares. It should be expanded to include information about other mollusks.))
[[File:Aplysia californica.jpg|thumb|[[California sea hare|Aplysia californica]] displaying phagomimicry in response to predator threat.]]
'''Phagomimicry''' is a [[defensive behaviour]] of [[sea hare]]s, in which the animal ejects a mixture of chemicals, which [[Mimicry|mimic]] food, and overwhelm the senses of their predator, giving the sea hare a chance to escape.<ref name=":02">((Cite journal|last1=Kicklighter|first1=Cynthia E.|last2=Shabani|first2=Shkelzen|last3=Johnson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Derby|first4=Charles D.|title=Sea Hares Use Novel Antipredatory Chemical Defenses|journal=Current Biology|volume=15|issue=6|pages=549–554|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.057|pmid=15797024|year=2005|s2cid=11562464|doi-access=free))</ref><ref name=":6">((cite journal|last1=Shabani|first1=Shkelzen|last2=Yaldiz|first2=Seymanur|last3=Vu|first3=Luan|last4=Derby|first4=Charles D.|date=2 October 2007|title=Acidity enhances the effectiveness of active chemical defensive secretions of sea hares, Aplysia californica, against spiny lobsters, Panulirus interruptus|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A|volume=193|issue=12|pages=1195–1204|doi=10.1007/s00359-007-0271-5|pmid=17912533|s2cid=529097))</ref><ref name=":7">((cite journal|last1=Nusnbaum|first1=Matthew|last2=Derby|first2=Charles D.|date=May 2010|title=Ink secretion protects sea hares by acting on the olfactory and nonolfactory chemical senses of a predatory fish|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=79|issue=5|pages=1067–1076|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.01.022|s2cid=53155121))</ref> The typical defence response of the sea hare to a predator is to release two chemicals - [[Cephalopod ink|ink]] from the ink gland and [[opal]]ine from the opaline gland. While ink creates a dark, diffuse cloud in the water which disrupts the sensory perception of the predator by acting as a smokescreen and as a decoy, the opaline, which affects the senses dealing with feeding, causes the predator to instinctively attack the cloud of chemicals as if it were indeed food.<ref name=":02"/> This ink is able to mimic food by having a high concentration of amino acids and other compounds that are normally found in food, and the attack behaviour of the predator allows the sea-hares the opportunity to escape.<ref name=":32">((Cite journal|last1=NUSNBAUM|first1=MATTHEW|last2=DERBY|first2=CHARLES D.|date=2010|title=Effects of Sea Hare Ink Secretion and Its Escapin-Generated Components on a Variety of Predatory Fishes|jstor=27822920|journal=Biological Bulletin|volume=218|issue=3|pages=282–292|doi=10.1086/BBLv218n3p282|pmid=20570851|s2cid=7114843))</ref>

== Inking behaviour ==
The inking behaviour exhibited in phagomimicry is in response to predator threat. [[Anaspidea|Sea hares]] have many natural predators such as [[starfish]], [[lobster]]s, and other [[crustacean]]s. When threatened by a predator, phagomimicry behaviour begins. An ink solution is released from both the [[Opaline gland|opaline]] and ink glands individually, then the compounds mix in the mantle of the sea hare to form the ink mixture. When ink is released it creates a smoke-screen like [[Anti-predator adaptation|defense mechanism]] allowing the sea hares time to escape while also affecting the [[Olfaction|olfactory]] and [[Taste|gustatory]] senses of their predator.<ref name=":02"/> Predators are tricked into thinking that they have captured their prey due to the specific chemical composition of the ink released. This induces feeding behaviours in the predator, and again gives the sea hares a better chance of escaping predation.

=== Opaline gland ===
The opaline gland is a structure resembling a bundle of grapes attached to a central canal which is composed of [[Epithelium|epithelial]] cells. Synthesis of the opaline substance happens in the opaline vesicles themselves, as there are only opaline vesicles and muscle cells in the opaline gland.<ref name=":1">((Cite journal|last=Prince|first=Jeffrey S.|date=2007-05-01|title=Opaline gland ultrastructure in Aplysia californica (Gastropoda: Anaspidea)|journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies|language=en|volume=73|issue=2|pages=199–204|doi=10.1093/mollus/eym016|issn=0260-1230|doi-access=free))</ref> The gland is innervated by three separate [[motor neuron]]s, and is composed of single large cells and vesicle cells, all of which have enlarged nucleus. These cells are inclosed in an external layer of muscle. When a [[sensory neuron]] detects a predator threat, dopamine is released onto one of the three motor neurons. The dopamine release causes a gland contraction, which then causes the expulsion of the opaline substance.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Brunelli|first1=M.|last2=Castellucci|first2=V.|last3=Kandel|first3=E. R.|date=1976|title=Synaptic Facilitation and Behavioral Sensitization in Aplysia: Possible Role of Serotonin and Cyclic AMP|jstor=1743647|journal=Science|volume=194|issue=4270|pages=1178–1181|doi=10.1126/science.186870|pmid=186870|bibcode=1976Sci...194.1178B))</ref>

=== Ink gland ===
The ink gland is smaller in size than the opaline gland, and is composed of two cell types: rough endoplasmic recticlum (RER) and granulate cells. The cells are surrounded by a layer of muscle, to contraction and expelling their contents. The RER is the formation site of the anti-predator protein, the granulate cells are for extra pigment storage. Pigment is dependent on the amount of red algae available to the sea hares, the higher the red algal consumption, the darker the colour of their ink.<ref name=":53">((Cite journal|last1=Kamio|first1=Michiya|last2=Grimes|first2=Tiphani V.|last3=Hutchins|first3=Melissa H.|last4=Dam|first4=Robyn van|last5=Derby|first5=Charles D.|title=The purple pigment aplysioviolin in sea hare ink deters predatory blue crabs through their chemical senses|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=80|issue=1|pages=89–100|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.04.003|year=2010|s2cid=53162083))</ref> This mixing can cause another chain of reactions between the compounds that have further implications on the effect that the ink secretion has on predators.<ref name=":1" />

== Ink chemical composition ==
Both the opaline and ink gland secrete different substances that when mixed together form the ink released during phagomimicry. The secretion is very acidic (ink having a pH of 4.9 and opaline having a pH of 5.8) and contains high levels of bioactive molecules that can serve as feeding stimulants, feeding deterrents, and aversive compounds. Feeding stimulants can be found in both the ink and opaline secretions in the form of [[amino acid]]s (such as [[lysine]] and [[arginine]]), and serve to trick predators into thinking that the ink secretion is a food source.<ref name=":4">((Cite journal|last1=Derby|first1=Charles D.|last2=Kicklighter|first2=Cynthia E.|last3=Johnson|first3=P. M.|last4=Zhang|first4=Xu|date=2007-05-01|title=Chemical Composition of Inks of Diverse Marine Molluscs Suggests Convergent Chemical Defenses|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|language=en|volume=33|issue=5|pages=1105–1113|doi=10.1007/s10886-007-9279-0|issn=0098-0331|pmid=17393278|bibcode=2007JCEco..33.1105D |s2cid=92064))</ref><ref name=":32"/> To induce the aversive feeding effects on predators the ink contains a compound from the opaline gland produced from the oxidation of <small>L</small>-lysine, which is then mixed in the mantle with the <small>L</small>-amino acid oxidase from the ink gland.<ref name=":4"/> Together this compound, called escapin is secreted in the ink, and is a feeding deterrent.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Ko|first1=Ko-Chun|last2=Tai|first2=Phang C.|last3=Derby|first3=Charles D.|date=2012-04-01|title=Mechanisms of Action of Escapin, a Bactericidal Agent in the Ink Secretion of the Sea Hare Aplysia californica: Rapid and Long-Lasting DNA Condensation and Involvement of the OxyR-Regulated Oxidative Stress Pathway|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=56|issue=4|pages=1725–1734|doi=10.1128/aac.05874-11|issn=0066-4804|pmid=22232273|pmc=3318362))</ref> The ink secretion can have a long-lasting effect on predators as chemical phagomimics can cause chemo-mechanosensory stimulation which overwhelms the sensory system and leads to confusion and eventually the cession of the attack.<ref name=":53"/><ref name=":4" />

== Physical properties of Ink ==
The ink released from the ink gland is dark purple in colour, the colour depends on the type of algae consumed by the sea-hare.<ref name=":53"/> The opaline ink is white in colour, and when it mixes with the ink gland ink they form a compound that suspends itself in the water ([[Dispersity|polidisperse]] suspension), creating a smoke-screen defence mechanism.<ref name=":53" /> The particle density of the ink is similar to that of species such as [[cuttlefish]], the particles range in size from 80–150&nbsp;nm, with a density of 1.27&nbsp;cm<small>-3,</small> which allows for the inks suspension in water <ref>((Cite journal|last1=Soto-Gómez|first1=Diego|last2=Pérez-Rodríguez|first2=Paula|last3=López-Periago|first3=J. Eugenio|last4=Paradelo|first4=Marcos|title=Sepia ink as a surrogate for colloid transport tests in porous media|journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology|volume=191|pages=88–98|doi=10.1016/j.jconhyd.2016.05.005|pmid=27294674|year=2016|bibcode=2016JCHyd.191...88S))</ref><small>.</small>

== See also ==
* [[cuttlefish]]
* [[cephalopod ink]]

==References==
<references />
((Mimicry))

[[Category:Mimicry]]
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Predation]]

Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):

Phagomimicry (edit)
Template:Ambox (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Category handler (view source) (protected)
Template:Cite journal (view source) (protected)
Template:Cleanup (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:DMC (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:DMCA (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Dated maintenance category (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Dated maintenance category (articles) (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Hlist/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Template:Icon (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Main other (view source) (protected)
Template:Mimicry (edit)
Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Ns has subpages (view source) (protected)
Template:SUBJECTSPACE formatted (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Terminate sentence (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Arguments (view source) (protected)
Module:Category handler (view source) (protected)
Module:Category handler/blacklist (view source) (protected)
Module:Category handler/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Category handler/data (view source) (protected)
Module:Category handler/shared (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1 (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Icon (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Icon/data (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Message box (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/ambox.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/data (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/configuration (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Ns has subpages (view source) (protected)
Module:Text (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Unsubst (view source) (protected)
Module:Yesno (view source) (protected)

Return to Phagomimicry.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagomimicry"