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((Short description|Study of non-human primate intellect))
((More citations needed|date=March 2012))
[[File:Böbe majom kanállal eszik egy lábosból - Veszprém Portré.jpg|thumb|The Chimpanzee Böbe in 1967]]
[[File:Böbe majom fest - 1967 - vehir.hu.jpg|thumb|Böbe painting in 1967]]
'''Primate cognition''' is the study of the intellectual and behavioral skills of non-human [[primate]]s, particularly in the fields of [[psychology]], [[behavioral biology]], [[primatology]], and [[anthropology]].<ref>((Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSYdl2ExJrEC |year=1997 |title=Primate cognition |isbn=978-0-19-510624-4 |author1=Michael Tomasello  |author2=Josep Call |publisher=Oxford University Press ))</ref>

Primates are capable of high levels of cognition; some make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays;<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Boesch C, Boesch H | title = Tool use and tool making in wild chimpanzees | journal = Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology | volume = 54 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 86–99 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2157651 | doi = 10.1159/000156428  ))</ref><ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Westergaard GC, Lundquist AL, Haynie MK, Kuhn HE, Suomi SJ | title = Why some capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) use probing tools (and others do not) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–211 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9642788 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207 ))</ref> some have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank;<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = de Waal FB, Davis JM | title = Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 41 | issue = 2 | pages = 221–228 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12459220 | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5 | s2cid = 8190458 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.496.9719 ))</ref> they are status conscious, [[Psychological manipulation|manipulative]] and capable of deception;<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Parr LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD, de Waal FB | title = Recognizing facial cues: individual discrimination by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–60 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10739311 | pmc = 2018744 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47 ))</ref> they can recognise [[Family|kin]] and [[conspecific]]s;<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Parr LA, de Waal FB | title = Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees | journal = Nature | volume = 399 | issue = 6737 | pages = 647–648 | date = June 1999 | pmid = 10385114 | doi = 10.1038/21345 | s2cid = 4424086 | bibcode = 1999Natur.399..647P ))</ref><ref>((cite journal |year=1997 |title=Discrimination of macaques by macaques: The case of sulawesi species |journal=Primates |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=233–245 |vauthors=Fujita K, Watanabe K, Widarto TH, Suryobroto B |doi=10.1007/BF02381612|s2cid=21042762 ))</ref>  they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Call J | title = Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and children (Homo sapiens) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–171 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11459163 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159 ))</ref><ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Itakura S, Tanaka M | title = Use of experimenter-given cues during object-choice tasks by chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes''), an orangutan (''Pongo pygmaeus''), and human infants (''Homo sapiens'') | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–126 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9642782 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.119  ))</ref><ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Gouteux S, Thinus-Blanc C, Vauclair J |year=2001 |title=Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=505–519 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505|pmid=11561924 ))</ref>

==Studies in primate cognition==

===Theory of Mind===
Theory of mind (also known as mental state attribution, mentalizing, or mindreading) can be defined as the "ability to track the unobservable mental states, like desires and beliefs, that guide others' actions".<ref name=":0">((Cite journal | vauthors = Lewis L, Krupenye C | journal = PsyArXiv  |date=2021-06-24|title=Theory of Mind in Nonhuman Primates| doi = 10.31234/osf.io/c568f  | s2cid = 237857077 ))</ref> Premack and Woodruff's 1978 article "Does the chimpanzee have a [[theory of mind]]?" sparked a contentious issue because of the problem of inferring from [[ethology|animal behavior]] the existence of [[thought|thinking]], of the existence of a concept of [[self (psychology)|self]] or [[self-awareness]], or of particular thoughts.<ref>((Cite journal | vauthors = Premack D, Woodruff G | title = Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | date = December 1978 | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 515–526 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X00076512 | s2cid = 141321709 | doi-access = free ))</ref>

Non-human research still has a major place in this field, however, and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind, and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social cognition.<ref>((Cite journal| vauthors = Anderson JR, Montant M, Schmitt D |date=August 1996|title=Rhesus monkeys fail to use gaze direction as an experimenter-given cue in an object-choice task |journal=Behavioural Processes|language=en|volume=37|issue=1|pages=47–55|doi=10.1016/0376-6357(95)00074-7|pmid=24897158|s2cid=19504558))</ref><ref>((Cite journal| vauthors = Byrne RW, Whiten A |date=June 1988|title=Toward the next generation in data quality: A new survey of primate tactical deception |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=267–273|doi=10.1017/S0140525X00049955 |s2cid=143667510))</ref><ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Herrmann E, Call J, Hernàndez-Lloreda MV, Hare B, Tomasello M | title = Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: the cultural intelligence hypothesis | journal = Science | volume = 317 | issue = 5843 | pages = 1360–1366 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17823346 | doi = 10.1126/science.1146282 | bibcode = 2007Sci...317.1360H | s2cid = 686663 ))</ref> While it is difficult to study human-like theory of mind and mental states in species which we do not yet describe as "minded" at all, and about whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding, researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities.

For example, many researchers focus on animals' understanding of intention, gaze, perspective, or knowledge (or rather, what another being has seen). Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus-response learning, since mental states can often be inferred based on observed behavioural cues.<ref name=":0" /> Recently, most non-human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and [[great ape]]s, who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition. Research can be categorized in to three subsections of theory of mind: attribution of intentions, attribution of knowledge (and perception), and attribution of belief.

''Attribution of Intentions''

Research on chimpanzees, capuchin monkeys, and Tonkean macaques (Macaca tokeana) has provided evidence that they are sensitive to the goals and intentions of others and are able to differentiate between when an experimenter is unable to give them food versus when the experimenter is just unwilling to.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Call J, Hare B, Carpenter M, Tomasello M | title = 'Unwilling' versus 'unable': chimpanzees' understanding of human intentional action | journal = Developmental Science | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 488–498 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15484596 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00368.x ))</ref><ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Canteloup C, Meunier H | title = 'Unwilling' ''versus'' 'unable': Tonkean macaques' understanding of human goal-directed actions | journal = PeerJ | volume = 5 | pages = e3227 | date = 2017-05-03 | pmid = 28480137 | pmc = 5419206 | doi = 10.7717/peerj.3227 | doi-access = free ))</ref>

''Attribution of Knowledge (and Perception)''

Hare et al. (2001) demonstrates that chimpanzees are aware of what other individuals know. They can also understand what another perceives, and they selectively choose food that is not visible to their competitor.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Hare B, Call J, Tomasello M | title = Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know? | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–151 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11170704 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.2000.1518 | s2cid = 3402554 ))</ref>

''Attribution of Belief''

A false-belief test is a comprehensive test used to test for an individual's theory of mind. Understanding language is a key component to being able to understand the directions for the false-belief test, and researchers have had to get creative to utilize this test in the research of non-human primates' theory of mind. Recent technology has enabled researchers to closely resemble the false-belief task without needing to use language. In Krupenye et al. (2016), an advanced eye-tracking technology was used to test for false-belief understanding in apes. The findings of this experiment showed that apes understood and accurately anticipated the behavior of an individual who held a false belief.<ref name=":1">((cite journal | vauthors = Krupenye C, Kano F, Hirata S, Call J, Tomasello M | title = Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs | journal = Science | volume = 354 | issue = 6308 | pages = 110–114 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27846501 | doi = 10.1126/science.aaf8110 | bibcode = 2016Sci...354..110K | hdl = 10161/13632 | s2cid = 19959653 | hdl-access = free ))</ref>

There has been some controversy over the interpretation of evidence purporting to show theory of mind ability—or inability—in animals. Part of this debate has involved whether animals are really able to associate cognitive abilities with another individual, or if they are just able to read and understand behavior.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Heyes C | title = Animal mindreading: what's the problem? | journal = Psychonomic Bulletin & Review | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–327 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25102928 | doi = 10.3758/s13423-014-0704-4 | s2cid = 37581900 ))</ref><ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Penn DC, Povinelli DJ | title = On the lack of evidence that non-human animals possess anything remotely resembling a 'theory of mind' | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 362 | issue = 1480 | pages = 731–744 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17264056 | pmc = 2346530 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2006.2023 ))</ref> Povinelli et al. (1990) points out that most evidence in support of great ape theory of mind involves naturalistic settings to which the apes have already adapted through past learning. Their "reinterpretation hypothesis" explains away evidence supporting attribution of mental states to others in chimpanzees as merely evidence of risk-based learning; that is, the chimpanzees learn through experience that certain behaviors in other chimpanzees have a probability of leading to certain responses, without necessarily attributing knowledge or other intentional states to those other chimpanzees. They have proposed testing theory of mind abilities in great apes in novel, and not naturalistic settings.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Povinelli DJ, Nelson KE, Boysen ST | title = Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 104 | issue = 3 | pages = 203–210 | date = September 1990 | pmid = 2225758 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.104.3.203 | url = https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&context=acwp_asie ))</ref> Experimenters since then, such as demonstrated in Krupenye et al. (2016), have gone to extensive lengths to control for behavioral cues by placing the apes in novel settings as suggested by Povinelli and colleagues. Research has shown that there is substantial evidence for some non-human primates to track the mental state, like desires and beliefs, of other individuals that cannot be deduced to a response of learned behavioural cues.<ref name=":1" />

==== Communication in the wild ====
For most of the 20th century, scientists who studied primates thought of vocalizations as physical responses to emotions and external stimuli.<ref>((Cite book| vauthors = Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM | title=Baboon Metaphysics|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226102429.001.0001|isbn=978-0-226-10244-3))</ref> The first observations of primate vocalizations representing and referring to events in the exterior world were observed in vervet monkeys in 1967.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Struhsaker TT | title = Behavior of vervet monkeys and other cercopithecines. New data show structural uniformities in the gestures of semiarboreal and terrestrial cercopithecines | journal = Science | volume = 156 | issue = 3779 | pages = 1197–1203 | date = June 1967 | pmid = 4960943 | doi = 10.1126/science.156.3779.1197 | s2cid = 84150741 | bibcode = 1967Sci...156.1197S ))</ref> Calls with specific intent, such as alarm calls or mating calls has been observed in many orders of animals, including primates. Researchers began to study vervet monkey vocalizations in more depth as a result of this finding. In the seminal study on vervet monkeys, researchers played recordings of three different types of vocalizations they use as alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons. Vervet monkeys in this study responded to each call accordingly: going up trees for leopard calls, searching for predators in the sky for eagle calls, and looking down for snake calls.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL, Marler P | title = Monkey responses to three different alarm calls: evidence of predator classification and semantic communication | journal = Science | volume = 210 | issue = 4471 | pages = 801–803 | date = November 1980 | pmid = 7433999 | doi = 10.1126/science.7433999 | bibcode = 1980Sci...210..801S ))</ref> This indicated a clear communication that there is a predator nearby and what kind of predator it is, eliciting a specific response. The use of recorded sounds, as opposed to observations in the wild, gave researchers insight into the fact that these calls contain meaning about the external world.<ref>((Cite web|title=Robert Seyfarth: Can Monkeys Talk? - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3lsF83rHKFc|access-date=2020-11-02|website=www.youtube.com))</ref> This study also produced evidence that suggests vervet monkeys improve in their ability to classify different predators and produce alarm calls for each predator as they get older. Further research into this phenomenon has discovered that infant vervet monkeys produce alarm calls for a wider variety of species than adults. Adults only use alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons while infants produce alarm calls for land mammals, birds, and snakes respectively. Data suggests that infants learn how to use and respond to alarm calls by watching their parents.<ref>((Cite journal| vauthors = Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL |date=2010-04-26|title=The Ontogeny of Vervet Monkey Alarm Calling Behavior: A Preliminary Report |journal=Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie|language=en|volume=54|issue=1|pages=37–56|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1980.tb01062.x))</ref>

A different species of monkeys, the wild Campbell's monkeys have also been known to produce a sequence of vocalization that require a specific order to elicit a specific behaviour in other monkeys. Changing the order of the sounds changes the resulting behaviour, or meaning, of the call. [[Diana monkey]]s were studied in a habituation-dishabituation experiment that demonstrated the ability to attend to the semantic content of calls rather than simply to acoustic nature.  Primates have also been observed responding to alarm calls of other species. [[Crested guineafowl|Crested Guinea fowl]], a ground-dwelling fowl, produce a single type of alarm call for all predators it detects. Diana monkeys have been observed to respond to the most likely reason for the call, typically a human or leopard, based on the situation and respond according to that. If they deem a leopard is the more likely predator in the vicinity they will produce their own leopard-specific alarm call but if they think it is a human, they will remain silent and hidden.

The ability for non-human primates to understand call systems that belong to a different species of monkey happens but to a limited extent. In this case [[Diana monkey]]s and [[Campbell's mona monkey|Campbell's monkeys]] often form mixed species groups but they seem only to respond to each other's danger related calls.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Zuberbühler K | title = Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 267 | issue = 1444 | pages = 713–718 | date = April 2000 | pmid = 10821618 | pmc = 1690588 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2000.1061 ))</ref>

===Tool use===
((further|Tool use by animals#Primates))
[[File:Gorrila tool use-Efi.jpg|thumb|Tool use by a [[gorilla]]]]
There are many reports of primates making or using tools, both in the wild or when captive. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, [[capuchin monkeys]], [[baboons]], and [[mandrills]] have all been reported as using tools. The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting (mammals, invertebrates,<ref>((Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7922109.stm|title=Chimps craft ultimate fishing rod|date=Mar 3, 2009|access-date=May 21, 2020|via=news.bbc.co.uk))</ref> fish), collecting honey,<ref>((Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7949335.stm|title='Armed' chimp gets honey reward|date=Mar 18, 2009|access-date=May 21, 2020|via=news.bbc.co.uk))</ref> processing food (nuts, fruits, vegetables and seeds), collecting water, weapons and shelter.

Tool making is much rarer, but has been documented in orangutans,<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = van Schaik CP, Fox EA, Sitompul AF | title = Manufacture and use of tools in wild Sumatran orangutans. Implications for human evolution | journal = Die Naturwissenschaften | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 186–188 | date = April 1996 | pmid = 8643126 | doi = 10.1007/BF01143062 | s2cid = 27180148 | bibcode = 1996NW.....83..186V ))</ref> [[bonobo]]s and [[bearded capuchin]] monkeys. Research in 2007 shows that chimpanzees in the [[Fongoli]] [[savannah]] sharpen sticks to use as [[spear]]s when hunting, considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Pruetz JD, Bertolani P | title = Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. | journal = Current Biology | date = March 2007 | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 412–417 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042 | pmid = 17320393 | s2cid = 16551874| doi-access = free ))
*((cite web |author=Amanda Pachniewska |title=Spear-Hunting Chimps |website=Animal Cognition |date=November 2015 |url=https://www.animalcognition.org/2015/11/01/spear-hunting-chimps/))</ref><ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2007/02/chimps-use-spears-to-hunt-mammals-study-says/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828041941/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2007/02/chimps-use-spears-to-hunt-mammals-study-says/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 28, 2018|title=Chimps Use "Spears" to Hunt Mammals, Study Says|date=Feb 27, 2007|website=Science|access-date=May 21, 2020))</ref> Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools.<ref name="Vancatova">((cite web|url=http://www.rozhlas.cz/therevealed/comments/_zprava/488947|author=Vancatova, M.|title=Gorillas and Tools - Part I|year=2008|access-date=August 4, 2013))</ref> In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools.  Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at [[Chester Zoo]] (UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.<ref name="Gill2011">((cite web | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/14227783 | title = Mandrill monkey makes 'pedicuring' tool | vauthors = Gill V | publisher = BBC | date = 22 July 2011 | access-date = 11 August 2013))</ref><ref>((Cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/14227783 |title=Mandrill using a tool to clean under its nails|access-date=May 21, 2020))</ref>

There is some more recent controversy over whether tool use represents a higher level of physical cognition, although this [[Moving the goalposts|contradicts a long held tradition]] of tool use as conferring the highest status in the animal world. One study suggests that primates could use tools due to environmental or motivational clues, rather than an understanding of [[folk physics]] or a capacity for future planning.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Emery NJ, Clayton NS | title = Tool use and physical cognition in birds and mammals | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–33 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19328675 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2009.02.003 | s2cid = 18277620 ))</ref>

===Problem solving===
In 1913, [[Wolfgang Köhler]] started writing a book on problem solving titled ''The Mentality of Apes'' (1917). In this research, Köhler observed the manner in which chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach. He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders in order to retrieve the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms.

Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through [[trial-and-error]] (which American psychologist [[Edward Thorndike]] had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his [[law of effect]]), but rather that they had experienced an [[insight]] (sometimes known as the [[Eureka effect]] or an "aha" experience), in which, having realized the answer, they then proceeded to carry it out in a way that was, in Köhler's words, "unwaveringly purposeful."

===Asking questions and giving negative answers===
In the 1970s and the 1980s there had been suggestions that apes are unable to ask questions and to give negative answers.  According to numerous published studies, apes are able to answer human questions, and the vocabulary of the acculturated apes contains question words.<ref>((cite book | vauthors = Terrace HS | date = 1980 | title = Nim | location = London | publisher = Eyre Methuen ))</ref><ref>((cite book | vauthors = Gardner RA, Gardner RA, Gardner BT |title=The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli To Sign Language. |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=Hoboken |isbn=978-1-134-80514-3))</ref><ref>((cite book | vauthors = Premack D | date = 1976 | title = Language and intelligence in ape and man. | location = Hillsdale, NJ | publisher =  Lawrence Erlbaum Associates ))</ref><ref>((cite book | vauthors = Rumbaugh DM, Gill TV | date = 1977 | chapter = Use of 'Stock' sentences for other than the originally intended purpose. | title = Language learning by a chimpanzee. The Lana project. | veditors = Rumbaugh DM | pages = 172–192 | location = New York | publisher = Academic Press ))</ref><ref>((cite book | vauthors = Patterson F, Linden E | date = 1981 | title = The education of Koko | location = New York | publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Winston ))</ref> Despite these abilities, according to the published research literature, apes are not able to ask questions themselves, and in human-primate conversations, questions are asked by the humans only. Ann and David Premack's designed a potentially promising methodology to teach apes to ask questions in the 1970s: "In principle interrogation can be taught either by removing an element from a familiar situation in the animal's world or by removing the element from a language that maps the animal's world. It is probable that one can induce questions by purposefully removing key elements from a familiar situation. Suppose a chimpanzee received its daily ration of food at a specific time and place, and then one day the food was not there. A chimpanzee trained in the interrogative might inquire "Where is my food?" or, in Sarah's case, "My food is?" Sarah was never put in a situation that might induce such interrogation because for our purposes it was easier to teach Sarah to answer questions".<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Premack AJ, Premack D | title = Teaching language to an ape. | journal = Scientific American | date = October 1972 | volume = 227 | issue = 4 | pages = 92–99 | publisher = W. H. Freeman and Company | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1072-92 | bibcode = 1972SciAm.227d..92P ))</ref>

A decade later Premacks wrote: "Though she [Sarah] understood the question, she did not herself ask any questions—unlike the child who asks interminable questions, such as What that? Who making noise? When Daddy come home? Me go Granny's house? Where puppy? Toy? Sarah never delayed the departure of her trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going, when she was returning, or anything else".<ref>((cite book | vauthors = Premack D, Premack AJ | date = 1983 | title = The mind of an ape | location = New York, London | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | page = 29 ))</ref>

Despite all their achievements, Kanzi and Panbanisha also have not demonstrated the ability to ask questions so far. [[Joseph Jordania]] suggested that the ability to ask [[question]]s could be the crucial cognitive threshold between [[human]] and other [[ape]] mental abilities.<ref>((cite book | vauthors = Jordania J | title = [[Who Asked the First Question?]] The origins of human choral singing, intelligence, language and speech. | location = Tbilisi, Georgia | publisher = Logos | date = 2006 ))</ref> Jordania suggested that asking questions is not a matter of the ability to use syntactic structures, that it is primarily a matter of cognitive ability.

==''g'' factor of intelligence in primates==
((main|g factor in non-humans))
The general factor of intelligence, or [[g factor (psychometrics)|''g'' factor]], is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on various measures of [[cognitive abilities]]. First described in humans, the ''g'' factor has since been identified in a number of nonhuman species.<ref name="Reader">((cite journal | vauthors = Reader SM, Hager Y, Laland KN | title = The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 366 | issue = 1567 | pages = 1017–1027 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21357224 | pmc = 3049098 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2010.0342 ))</ref>

[[Primates]] in particular have been the focus of ''g'' research due to their close [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] links to humans. A [[principal component analysis]] run in a [[meta-analysis]] of 4,000 primate behaviour papers including 62 species found that 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability tests was accounted for by a single factor, controlling for socio-ecological variables.<ref name="Reader" /> This value fits within the accepted range of the influence of ''g'' on [[IQ]].<ref>((cite book | vauthors = Kamphaus RW | date = 2005 | title = Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence. | publisher = Springer Science & Business Media ))</ref>

However, there is some debate as to the influence of ''g'' on all primates equally. A 2012 study identifying individual chimpanzees that consistently performed highly on cognitive tasks found clusters of abilities instead of a general factor of intelligence.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Herrmann E, Call J | title = Are there geniuses among the apes? | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 367 | issue = 1603 | pages = 2753–2761 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22927574 | pmc = 3427546 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2012.0191 ))</ref> This study used individual-based data and claim that their results are not directly comparable to previous studies using group data that have found evidence for ''g''. Further research is required to identify the exact nature of ''g'' in primates.

== See also ==
*[[Animal cognition]]
*[[Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis]]
*[[Deep social mind]]
*[[Hominid intelligence]]
*[[Great ape language]]
*[[Primate empathy]]
*[[Primate archaeology]]

== References ==
((reflist))

== Further reading ==
((refbegin|30em))
* ((cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505 | vauthors = Gouteux S, Thinus-Blanc C, Vauclair J | year = 2001 | title = Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: General | volume = 130 | issue = 3| pages = 505–519 | pmid = 11561924 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Call J | title = Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and children (Homo sapiens) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–171 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11459163 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = de Blois ST, Novak MA, Bond M | title = Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–152 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9642783 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.137 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Neiworth JJ, Steinmark E, Basile BM, Wonders R, Steely F, DeHart C | title = A test of object permanence in a new-world monkey species, cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–37 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12658533 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-003-0162-2 | s2cid = 3070975 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Westergaard GC, Lundquist AL, Haynie MK, Kuhn HE, Suomi SJ | title = Why some capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) use probing tools (and others do not) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–211 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9642788 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Brown DA, Boysen ST | title = Spontaneous discrimination of natural stimuli by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 392–400 | date = December 2000 | pmid = 11149543 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.114.4.392 | url = https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1172&context=acwp_asie ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Neiworth JJ, Parsons RR, Hassett JM | title = A test of the generality of perceptually based categories found in infants: attentional differences toward natural kinds by New World monkeys | journal = Developmental Science | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–193 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15320378 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00337.x ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Parr LA, de Waal FB | title = Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees | journal = Nature | volume = 399 | issue = 6737 | pages = 647–648 | date = June 1999 | pmid = 10385114 | doi = 10.1038/21345 | s2cid = 4424086 | bibcode = 1999Natur.399..647P ))
* ((cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02381612 | vauthors = Fujita K, Watanabe K, Widarto TH, Suryobroto B | year = 1997 | title = Discrimination of macaques by macaques: The case of sulawesi species | journal = Primates | volume = 38 | issue = 3| pages = 233–245 | s2cid = 21042762 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Parr LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD, de Waal FB | title = Recognizing facial cues: individual discrimination by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–60 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10739311 | pmc = 2018744 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Pascalis O, Bachevalier J | title = Face recognition in primates: a cross-species study | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–96 | date = April 1998 | pmid = 24897644 | doi = 10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00090-9 | s2cid = 16819043 ))
* ((cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s100710050032 | vauthors = Paar LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD | year = 1999 | title = Is the inversion effect in rhesus monkeys face-specific? | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 123–129 | s2cid = 18435189 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Uller C, Hauser M, Carey S | title = Spontaneous representation of number in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 3 | pages = 248–257 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11594494 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.3.248 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Beran MJ | title = Summation and numerousness judgments of sequentially presented sets of items by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 2 | pages = 181–191 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11459165 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.181 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Hauser MD, Kralik J, Botto-Mahan C, Garrett M, Oser J | title = Self-recognition in primates: phylogeny and the salience of species-typical features | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 92 | issue = 23 | pages = 10811–10814 | date = November 1995 | pmid = 7479889 | pmc = 40702 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.92.23.10811 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 1995PNAS...9210811H ))
* ((cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0003-3472(95)80009-3 | vauthors = Heyes CM | year = 1995 | title = Self-recognition in primates: Further reflections create a hall of mirrors | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 50 | issue = 6| pages = 1533–1542 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.558.5485 | s2cid = 20290540 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Anderson JR | title = Self-recognition in Saguinus? A critical essay | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 1563–1567 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9521801 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.1997.0548 | s2cid = 43373261 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Hauser MD, Kralik J | title = Life beyond the mirror: a reply to Anderson & Gallup | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 1568–1571 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9521802 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.1997.0549 | s2cid = 22836237 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Neiworth JJ, Anders SL, Parsons RR | title = Tracking responses related to self-recognition: a frequency comparison of responses to mirrors, photographs, and videotapes by cotton top tamanins (Saguinus oedipus) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 4 | pages = 432–438 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11824907 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.4.432 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = de Waal FB, Dindo M, Freeman CA, Hall MJ | title = The monkey in the mirror: hardly a stranger | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 102 | issue = 32 | pages = 11140–11147 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16055557 | pmc = 1183568 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0503935102 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2005PNAS..10211140D ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Anderson JR, Mitchell RW | title = Macaques but not lemurs co-orient visually with humans | journal = Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–22 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10050063 | doi = 10.1159/000021670 | s2cid = 46268265 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Itakura S, Tanaka M | title = Use of experimenter-given cues during object-choice tasks by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), an orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), and human infants (Homo sapiens) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–126 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9642782 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.119 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Neiworth JJ, Burman MA, Basile BM, Lickteig MT | title = Use of experimenter-given cues in visual co-orienting and in an object-choice task by a new world monkey species, cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 116 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–11 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11926682 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.116.1.3 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Tomasello M, Call J, Hare B | title = Five primate species follow the visual gaze of conspecifics | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 1063–1069 | date = April 1998 | pmid = 9632490 | doi = 10.1006/anbe.1997.0636 | s2cid = 3407611 ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = Brosnan SF, De Waal FB | title = Monkeys reject unequal pay | journal = Nature | volume = 425 | issue = 6955 | pages = 297–299 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 13679918 | doi = 10.1038/nature01963 | s2cid = 4425495 | bibcode = 2003Natur.425..297B ))
* ((cite journal | vauthors = de Waal FB, Davis JM | title = Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 41 | issue = 2 | pages = 221–228 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12459220 | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5 | s2cid = 8190458 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.496.9719 ))
((refend))

((animal cognition))
((Great ape language))
((Evolutionary psychology))

((DEFAULTSORT:Primate Cognition))
[[Category:Animal intelligence]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Primatology]]

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