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Proto-fascism refers to the direct predecessor ideologies and cultural movements that influenced and formed the basis of fascism.[1][2] A prominent proto-fascist figure is Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian nationalist whose politics influenced Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism.[1] Proto-fascist political movements include the Italian Nationalist Association (Associazione Nazionalista Italiana, ANI), the German National Association of Commercial Employees (Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband, DHV) and the German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, DNVP).[2]

Other people who have been labeled proto-fascist because they shared an ideological basis with fascism include:

References

  1. ^ a b Spackman, Barbara. Fascist Virilities: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Social Fantasy in Italy. p. 78.
  2. ^ a b Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge. p. 94.
  3. ^ Broich, Ulrich; Dickinson, H. T.; Hellmuth, Eckhart; Schmidt, Martin. Reactions to Revolutions: The 1790s and Their Aftermath. p. 255.
  4. ^ Kramer, Naomi, ed. (2007). Civil Courage: A Response to Contemporary Conflict and Prejudice. Peter Lang. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-1433100574.
  5. ^ Routledge Library Editions: Racism and Fascism. Routledge, Taylor & Francis. 2021. p. 32. ISBN 9781138934221.
  6. ^ Fuller, Robert Lynn (2012). The Origins of the French Nationalist Movement, 1886-1914. McFarland. p. 251. ISBN 9780786490257.
  7. ^ Reyes, Stefan Roel (December 2019). "Antebellum Palingenetic Ultranationalism: The Case for Including the United States in Comparative Fascist Studies". Fascism. Brill Publishers. 8 (2): 307–330. doi:10.1163/22116257-00802005.
  8. ^ McGovern, William Montgomery (1941). From Luther to Hitler. Harrap. p. 180.
  9. ^ Tennyson, G. B. (1973). "The Carlyles". In DeLaura, David J. (ed.). Victorian Prose: A Guide to Research. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. p. 78. ISBN 9780873522502. G. I. Morris in "Divine Hitler" ([Die Neueren Sprachen], 1935) cites his own experience . . . A headmaster had told his students that 'Ruskin and Carlyle were the first National Socialists.'
  10. ^ Mazis, John (2014). Man For All Seasons: The Uncompromising Life of Ion Dragoumis. The Isis Press. ISBN 978-9754285277.
  11. ^ "Giánnis Mázis: "O Dragoúmis den écho kamía amfivolía óti ítan énas protofasístas"" Γιάννης Μάζης: "Ο Δραγούμης δεν έχω καμία αμφιβολία ότι ήταν ένας πρωτοφασίστας" [Yannis Mazis: "I have no doubt that Dragoumis was a proto-fascist"]. Εθνικόν Κράτος (in Greek). 4 June 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
  12. ^ Russel, Bertrand (1951). The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1872-1914. Little, Brown and Company. p. 112.
  13. ^ Ferretter, Luke (2015). ""A Prison for the Infinite": D. H. Lawrence and Bertrand Russell on the War". Études Lawrenciennes (46). doi:10.4000/lawrence.226.
  14. ^ Kurlander, Eric (2002). "The Rise of Völkisch-Nationalism and the Decline of German Liberalism: A Comparison of Liberal Political Cultures in Schleswig-Holstein and Silesia 1912-1924". European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire. 9 (1): 23–36. doi:10.1080/13507480120116182. ISSN 1350-7486. S2CID 145167949.
  15. ^ Sullam, Simon Levis (2015). Giuseppe Mazzini and the Origins of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137514585.
  16. ^ Nation-building in 19th-century Italy: the case of Francesco Crispi[permanent dead link], Christopher Duggan, History Today, February 1, 2002
  17. ^ The Randolph Churchill of Italy, by David Gilmour, The Spectator, June 1, 2002 (Review of Francesco Crispi, 1818-1901: From Nation to Nationalism, by Christopher Duggan)

Sources

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