Rabies vaccine
Vaccine description
TargetRabies
Vaccine typeInactivated
Clinical data
Trade namesRabAvert, Rabipur, Rabivax, others
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa607023
License data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Intramuscular, intradermal
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Identifiers
DrugBank
ChemSpider
  • none
UNII
KEGG
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

The rabies vaccine is a vaccine used to prevent rabies.[11] There are several rabies vaccines available that are both safe and effective.[11] Vaccinations must be administered prior to rabies virus exposure or within the latent period after exposure to prevent the disease.[12] Transmission of rabies virus to humans typically occurs through a bite or scratch from an infectious animal, but exposure can occur through indirect contact with the saliva from an infectious individual.[12]

Doses are usually given by injection into the skin or muscle.[11] After exposure, the vaccination is typically used along with rabies immunoglobulin.[11] It is recommended that those who are at high risk of exposure be vaccinated before potential exposure.[11] Rabies vaccines are effective in humans and other animals, and vaccinating dogs is very effective in preventing the spread of rabies to humans.[11] A long-lasting immunity to the virus develops after a full course of treatment.[11]

Rabies vaccines may be used safely by all age groups.[11] About 35 to 45 percent of people develop a brief period of redness and pain at the injection site, and 5 to 15 percent of people may experience fever, headaches, or nausea.[11] After exposure to rabies, there is no contraindication to its use, because the untreated virus is virtually 100% fatal.[11][13]

The first rabies vaccine was introduced in 1885 and was followed by an improved version in 1908.[14] Millions of people globally are vaccinated against the virus.[11] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[15][16]

Medical uses

Before exposure

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends vaccinating those who are at high risk of the disease, such as children who live in areas where it is common.[11] Other groups may include veterinarians, researchers, or people planning to travel to regions where rabies is common.[17] Three doses of the vaccine are given over a one-month period on days zero, seven, and either twenty-one or twenty-eight.[11][17]

After exposure

For individuals who have been potentially exposed to the virus, four doses over two weeks are recommended, as well as an injection of rabies immunoglobulin with the first dose.[18] This is known as post-exposure vaccination.[19] For people who have previously been vaccinated, only a single dose of the rabies vaccine is required.[19] However, vaccination after exposure is neither a treatment nor a cure for rabies; it can only prevent the development of rabies in a person if given before the virus reaches the brain.[19] Because the rabies virus has a relatively long incubation period, post-exposure vaccinations are typically highly effective.[11]

Additional doses

Immunity following a course of doses is typically long lasting, and additional doses are usually not needed unless the person has a high risk of contracting the virus.[11] Those at risk may have tests done to measure the amount of rabies antibodies in the blood, and then get rabies boosters as needed.[17] Following administration of a booster dose, one study found 97% of immunocompetent individuals demonstrated protective levels of neutralizing antibodies after ten years.[20]

Safety

Rabies vaccines are safe in all age groups.[11][21] About 35 to 45 percent of people develop a brief period of redness and pain at the injection site, and 5 to 15 percent of people may experience fever, headaches, or nausea.[11] Because of the certain fatality of the virus, receiving the vaccine is always advisable.[11]

Vaccines made from nerve tissue are used in a few countries, mainly in Asia and Latin America, but are less effective and have greater side effects.[11] Their use is thus not recommended by the World Health Organization.[11]

Types

The human diploid cell rabies vaccine (HDCV) was started in 1967. Human diploid cell rabies vaccines are inactivated vaccines made using the attenuated Pitman-Moore L503 strain of the virus.[22]

In addition to these developments, newer and less expensive purified chicken embryo cell vaccines (CCEEV) and purified Vero cell rabies vaccines are now available and are recommended for use by the WHO.[11] The purified Vero cell rabies vaccine uses the attenuated Wistar strain of the rabies virus, and uses the Vero cell line as its host. CCEEVs can be used in both pre- and post-exposure vaccinations. CCEEVs use inactivated rabies virus grown from either embryonated eggs or in cell cultures and are safe for use in humans and animals.[11][23]

The vaccine was attenuated and prepared in the H.D.C. strain WI-38 which was gifted to Hilary Koprowski at the Wistar Institute by Leonard Hayflick, an Associate Member, who developed this normal human diploid cell strain.[24][25]

Verorab, developed by Sanofi-Aventis and Speeda, developed by Liaoning Chengda are purified vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV).[26][27] The first is approved by the World Health Organization.[28] Verorab is approved for medical use in Australia and the European Union and is indicated for both pre-exposure and post-exposure prophylaxis against rabies.[4][10]

History

Early-20th-century rabies vaccination in Santa Catarina, Brazil

Virtually all infections with rabies resulted in death until two French scientists, Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux, developed the first rabies vaccination in 1885. Nine-year-old Joseph Meister (1876–1940), who had been mauled by a rabid dog, was the first human to receive this vaccine.[29] The treatment started with a subcutaneous injection on 6 July 1885, at 8:00 pm, which was followed with 12 additional doses administered over the following 10 days. The first injection was derived from the spinal cord of an inoculated rabbit which had died of rabies 15 days earlier. All the doses were obtained by attenuation, but later ones were progressively more virulent.[30]

The Pasteur-Roux vaccine attenuated the harvested virus samples by allowing them to dry for five to ten days. Similar nerve tissue-derived vaccines are still used in some countries, and while they are much cheaper than modern cell culture vaccines, they are not as effective.[31] Neural tissue vaccines also carry a certain risk of neurological complications.[32]

Society and culture

Economics

When the modern cell-culture rabies vaccine was first introduced in the early 1980s, it cost $45 per dose, and was considered to be too expensive. The cost of the rabies vaccine continues to be a limitation to acquiring pre-exposure rabies immunization for travelers from developed countries. In 2015, in the United States, a course of three doses could cost over US$1,000, while in Europe a course costs around €100. It is possible and more cost-effective to split one intramuscular dose of the vaccine into several intradermal doses. This method is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in areas that are constrained by cost or with supply issues. The route is as safe and effective as intramuscular according to the WHO.[33]

Veterinary use

A major contributor to this section appears to have a close connection with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Baits with vaccine for oral vaccination
Machine for distribution of baits from airplane

Pre-exposure immunization has been used on domesticated and wild populations. In many jurisdictions, domestic dogs, cats, ferrets, and rabbits are required to be vaccinated.[34]

There are two main types of vaccines used for domesticated animals and pets (including pets from wildlife species):

Imrab is an example of a veterinary rabies vaccine containing the Pasteur strain of killed rabies virus. Several different types of Imrab exist, including Imrab, Imrab 3, and Imrab Large Animal. Imrab 3 has been approved for ferrets and, in some areas, pet skunks.[36]

Dogs

Aside from vaccinating humans, another approach was also developed by vaccinating dogs to prevent the spread of the virus. In 1979, the Van Houweling Research Laboratory of the Silliman University Medical Center in Dumaguete in the Philippines[37] developed and produced a dog vaccine that gave a three-year immunity from rabies. The development of the vaccine resulted in the elimination of rabies in many parts of the Visayas and Mindanao Islands. The successful program in the Philippines was later used as a model by other countries, such as Ecuador and the Mexican state of Yucatán, in their fight against rabies conducted in collaboration with the World Health Organization.[38]

In Tunisia, a rabies control program was initiated to give dog owners free vaccination to promote mass vaccination which was sponsored by their government. The vaccine is known as Rabisin (Mérial), which is a cell based rabies vaccine only used countrywide. Vaccinations are often administered when owners take in their dogs for check-ups and visits at the vet.[39]

Oral rabies vaccines (see below for details) have been trialled on feral/stray dogs in some areas with high rabies incidence, as it could potentially be more efficient than catching and injecting them. However these have not been deployed for dogs at large scale yet.[40]

Wild animals

Wildlife species, primarily bats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes, act as reservoir species for different variants of the rabies virus in distinct geographic regions of the United States.[41][42] This results in the general occurrence of rabies as well as outbreaks in animal populations.[41] Approximately 90% of all reported rabies cases in the US are from wildlife.[41]

Oral rabies vaccine

Oral rabies vaccines are distributed across the landscape, targeting reservoir species, in an effort to produce a herd immunity effect.[43] The idea of wildlife vaccination was conceived during the 1960s, and modified-live rabies viruses were used for the experimental oral vaccination of carnivores by the 1970s.[44] Development of an oral immunization for wildlife began in the United States with laboratory trials using the live, attenuated Evelyn-Rokitnicki-Abselseth (ERA) vaccine, derived from the Street Alabama Dufferin (SAD) strain.[45] The first ORV field trial using the live attenuated vaccine to immunize foxes occurred in Switzerland during 1978.[46][47]

There are currently three different types of oral wildlife rabies vaccine in use:

Other oral rabies experimental vaccines in development include recombinant adenovirus vaccines.[52]

Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programs have been used in many countries in an effort to control the spread of rabies and limit the risk of human contact with the rabies virus.[41] ORV programs were initiated in Europe in the 1980s, Canada in 1985, and in the United States in 1990.[53] ORV is a preventive measure to eliminate rabies in wild animal vectors of disease, mainly foxes, raccoons, raccoon dogs, coyotes and jackals, but also can be used for dogs in developing countries.[54] ORV programs typically attractive baits to deliver the vaccine to targeted animals. In the United States, RABORAL V-RG (Boehringer Ingelheim, Duluth, GA, USA) has been the only licensed ORV for rabies virus management since 1997.[45] However, ONRAB "Ultralite" (Artemis Technologies Inc., Guelph, Ontario, Canada) baits have been distributed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in select areas of the eastern United States under an experimental permit to target raccoons since 2011.[55] RABORAL V-RG baits consist of a small packet containing the oral vaccine which is then either coated in a fishmeal paste or encased in a fishmeal-polymer block.[41] ONRAB "Ultralite" baits consist of a blister pack with a coating matrix of vanilla flavor, green food coloring, vegetable oil and hydrogenated vegetable fat.[51] When an animal bites into the bait, the packets burst and the vaccine is administered.[53] Current research suggests that if adequate amounts of the vaccine is ingested, immunity to the virus should last for upwards of one year.[56] By immunizing wild or stray animals, ORV programs work to create a buffer zone between the rabies virus and potential contact with humans, pets, or livestock.[53] Landscape features such as large bodies of water and mountains are often used to enhance the effectiveness of the buffer.[57] The effectiveness of ORV campaigns in specific areas is determined through trap-and-release methods.[58] Titer tests are performed on the blood drawn from the sample animals in order to measure rabies antibody levels in the blood.[58] Baits are usually distributed by aircraft to more efficiently cover large, rural regions. In order to place baits more precisely and to minimize human and pet contact with baits, they are distributed by hand in suburban or urban regions.[53] The standard bait distribution density is 75 baits/km2 in rural areas and 150 baits/km2 in urban and developed areas.[45]

Implementation of ORV programs in the United States has led to the elimination of the coyote rabies virus variant in 2003 and gray fox variant during 2013.[59][60] Furthermore, ORV has been successful in preventing the westward expansion of the raccoon rabies enzootic front beyond Alabama.[43]

References

  1. ^ a b "Verorab". Department of Health and Aged Care. 28 October 2022. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
  2. ^ "Rabies vaccine, human diploid cell (Imovax Rabies) Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 22 November 2019. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2019.
  3. ^ "Updates to the Prescribing Medicines in Pregnancy database". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  4. ^ a b "Verorab". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). 28 October 2022. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  5. ^ "VERORAB (Sanofi-Aventis Australia Pty Ltd)". Department of Health and Aged Care. 6 October 2022. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
  6. ^ "Rabies Vaccine BP - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". Electronic Medicines Compendium. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  7. ^ "Rabipur pre-filled syringe - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". Electronic Medicines Compendium. Archived from the original on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  8. ^ "Imovax Rabies (rabies virus strain pm-1503-3m antigen- propiolactone inactivated and water kit". DailyMed. 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  9. ^ "Rabavert- rabies vaccine kit". DailyMed. 18 September 2019. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  10. ^ a b "List of nationally authorised medicinal products, Active substance: rabies vaccine, Procedure no.: PSUSA/00009277/202103" (PDF). European Medicines Agency (EMA). 21 October 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v World Health Organization (2018). "Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper – April 2018" (PDF). Weekly Epidemiological Record. 93 (16): 201–19. hdl:10665/272372. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  12. ^ a b Rupprecht CE, Hanlon CA, Hemachudha T (June 2002). "Rabies re-examined". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 2 (6): 327–343. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00287-6. PMID 12144896.
  13. ^ Ombary G (10 October 2023). "Rabies 99.9% fatal, but highly preventable —PCP". GMA News Online. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  14. ^ Nunnally B (2014). Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control. Springer. p. 63. ISBN 9783662450246. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
  15. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
  16. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
  17. ^ a b c "Preexposure Vaccinations". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 22 April 2011. Archived from the original on 23 August 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  18. ^ "Rabies Vaccine Information Statement". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). June 2022. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
  19. ^ a b c "Rabies Postexposure Prophylaxis (PEP)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 16 November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  20. ^ "An Advisory Committee Statement (ACS). Committee to Advise on Tropical Medicine and Travel (CATMAT). Statement on travellers and rabies vaccine" (PDF). Canada Communicable Disease Report. 28 (ACS-4): 1–12. March 2002. PMID 11889905. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2020.
  21. ^ "National Rabies Management Program Overview". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  22. ^ "Rabies - Human Vaccines". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
  23. ^ "Rabies". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  24. ^ Hayflick L, Moorhead PS (December 1961). "The serial cultivation of human diploid cell strains". Experimental Cell Research. 25 (3): 585–621. doi:10.1016/0014-4827(61)90192-6. PMID 13905658.
  25. ^ Hayflick L (March 1965). "The limited in vitro lifetime of human diploid cell strains". Experimental Cell Research. 37 (3): 614–636. doi:10.1016/0014-4827(65)90211-9. PMID 14315085.
  26. ^ Toovey S (November 2007). "Preventing rabies with the Verorab vaccine: 1985-2005 Twenty years of clinical experience". Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 5 (6): 327–348. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2007.07.004. PMID 17983973.
  27. ^ Yu P, Huang Y, Zhang Y, Tang Q, Liang G (September 2012). "Production and evaluation of a chromatographically purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV) in China using microcarrier technology". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 8 (9): 1230–1235. doi:10.4161/hv.20985. PMC 3579903. PMID 22894963.
  28. ^ "Verorab". World Health Organization (WHO. 22 June 2005. Archived from the original on 24 November 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  29. ^ Geison GL (April 1978). "Pasteur's work on rabies: reexamining the ethical issues". The Hastings Center Report. The Hastings Center. 8 (2): 26–33. doi:10.2307/3560403. JSTOR 3560403. PMID 348641.
  30. ^ Tarantola A (March 2017). "Four Thousand Years of Concepts Relating to Rabies in Animals and Humans, Its Prevention and Its Cure". Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2 (2): 5. doi:10.3390/tropicalmed2020005. PMC 6082082. PMID 30270864.
  31. ^ Plotkin SA (1980). "Rabies vaccine prepared in human cell cultures: progress and perspectives". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 2 (3): 433–448. doi:10.1093/clinids/2.3.433. PMID 6158081.
  32. ^ Srivastava AK, Sardana V, Prasad K, Behari M (March 2004). "Diagnostic dilemma in flaccid paralysis following anti-rabies vaccine". Neurology India. 52 (1): 132–133. PMID 15069272. Archived from the original on 2 August 2009.
  33. ^ "Vaccinations and immunization Rabies". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  34. ^ "State Rabies Vaccination Laws for Domestic Dogs, Cats, and Ferrets in the United States". lawatlas.org. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  35. ^ "3.1.17 Rabies (Infection with Rabies Virus and Other Lyssaviruses)" (PDF). OIE Terrestrial Manual. World Organisation for Animal Health. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.
  36. ^ "Imrab 3". Merial. Archived from the original on 9 April 2005.
  37. ^ "Dr. George W. Beran's Biography". World Rabies Day. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
  38. ^ Beran GW. "One World, One Health Rabies" (PDF). OneHealthInitiative.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
  39. ^ Touihri L, Zaouia I, Elhili K, Dellagi K, Bahloul C (March 2011). "Evaluation of mass vaccination campaign coverage against rabies in dogs in Tunisia". Zoonoses and Public Health. Institut Pasteur de Tunis and Blackwell Verlag GmbH. 58 (2): 110–118. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01306.x. PMID 20042063. S2CID 232553.
  40. ^ Organization, World Health (2007). "Oral vaccination of dogs against rabies: guidance for research on oral rabies vaccines and Field application of oral vaccination of dogs against rabies". Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/331036. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  41. ^ a b c d e "Oral Rabies Vaccination". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  42. ^ Gilbert AT (August 2018). "Rabies virus vectors and reservoir species". Revue Scientifique et Technique. 37 (2): 371–384. doi:10.20506/rst.37.2.2808. PMID 30747141. S2CID 73436726.
  43. ^ a b Chipman RB, Gilbert AT, Slate D (2023). "Wildlife Rabies Management in the New World: Prevention, Control and Elimination in Mesocarnivores". In Rupprecht CE (ed.). History of Rabies in the Americas: From the Pre-Columbian to the Present, Volume I. Fascinating Life Sciences. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 143–198. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25052-1_7. ISBN 978-3-031-25051-4.
  44. ^ Baer GM (August 1994). "Rabies--an historical perspective". Infectious Agents and Disease. 3 (4): 168–180. PMID 7827785. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
  45. ^ a b c d Maki J, Guiot AL, Aubert M, Brochier B, Cliquet F, Hanlon CA, et al. (September 2017). "Oral vaccination of wildlife using a vaccinia-rabies-glycoprotein recombinant virus vaccine (RABORAL V-RG®): a global review". Veterinary Research. 48 (1): 57. doi:10.1186/s13567-017-0459-9. PMC 5610451. PMID 28938920.
  46. ^ Rupprecht CE, Hanlon CA, Slate D (2004). "Oral vaccination of wildlife against rabies: opportunities and challenges in prevention and control". Developments in Biologicals. 119: 173–184. PMID 15742629.
  47. ^ Winkler WG, Bögel K (June 1992). "Control of rabies in wildlife". Scientific American. 266 (6): 86–92. Bibcode:1992SciAm.266f..86W. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0692-86. PMID 1585150.
  48. ^ "Field application of oral rabies vaccines for dogs" (PDF). Report of a WHO Consultation organized in collaboration with the Office International des Epizooties (OIE). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. July 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2006.
  49. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). 12 November 2019. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  50. ^ Tordo N, Foumier A, Jallet C, Szelechowski M, Klonjkowski B, Eloit M (2008). "Canine adenovirus based rabies vaccines". Developments in Biologicals. 131: 467–476. PMID 18634509. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  51. ^ a b Fehlner-Gardiner C, Rudd R, Donovan D, Slate D, Kempf L, Badcock J (January 2012). "Comparing ONRAB® AND RABORAL V-RG® oral rabies vaccine field performance in raccoons and striped skunks, New Brunswick, Canada, and Maine, USA". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 48 (1): 157–167. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-48.1.157. PMID 22247384. S2CID 22571547.
  52. ^ Tordo N, Foumier A, Jallet C, Szelechowski M, Klonjkowski B, Eloit M (2008). "Canine adenovirus based rabies vaccines". Developments in Biologicals. 131: 467–476. PMID 18634509. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  53. ^ a b c d "Oral Rabies Vaccine Information". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). 12 November 2019. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  54. ^ "Oral rabies vaccination". Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  55. ^ Gilbert A, Johnson S, Walker N, Wickham C, Beath A, VerCauteren K (August 2018). "Efficacy of Ontario Rabies Vaccine Baits (ONRAB) against rabies infection in raccoons". Vaccine. 36 (32 Pt B): 4919–4926. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.06.052. PMID 30037482. S2CID 51714285.
  56. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). 12 November 2019. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  57. ^ Algeo TP, Slate D, Caron RM, Atwood T, Recuenco S, Ducey MJ, et al. (August 2017). "Modeling Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Habitat Connectivity to Identify Potential Corridors for Rabies Spread". Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2 (3): 44. doi:10.3390/tropicalmed2030044. PMC 6082097. PMID 30270901.
  58. ^ a b "Oral Rabies Vaccination Program in the East" (PDF). Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). January 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  59. ^ Sidwa TJ, Wilson PJ, Moore GM, Oertli EH, Hicks BN, Rohde RE, Johnston DH (September 2005). "Evaluation of oral rabies vaccination programs for control of rabies epizootics in coyotes and gray foxes: 1995-2003". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 227 (5): 785–792. doi:10.2460/javma.2005.227.785. PMID 16178403.
  60. ^ Blanton JD, Hanlon CA, Rupprecht CE (August 2007). "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2006". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 231 (4): 540–556. doi:10.2460/javma.231.4.540. PMID 17696853.

External links

Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, Infection, Inoculation (J07)
More
Categories