SS United States is a retired ocean liner built between 1950 and 1951 for the United States Lines. The ship is the largest ocean liner constructed entirely in the United States and the fastest ocean liner to cross the Atlantic in either direction, retaining the Blue Riband for the highest average speed since her maiden voyage in 1952, a title she still holds today. She was designed by American naval architectWilliam Francis Gibbs and could be converted into a troopship if required by the Navy in time of war. United States maintained an uninterrupted schedule of transatlantic passenger service until 1969 and was never used for military applications.
The ship has been sold several times since the 1970s, with each new owner trying unsuccessfully to make the liner profitable. Eventually, the ship's fittings were sold at auction, and hazardous wastes, including asbestos panels throughout the ship, were removed, leaving her almost completely stripped by 1994. Two years later, she was towed to Philadelphia, where she remains today.
Since 2009, the preservation group, 'SS United States Conservancy' has been raising funds to save the ship. The group purchased her in 2011 and has drawn up several unrealized plans to restore the ship, one of which included turning the ship into a multi-purpose waterfront complex. In 2015, as its funds dwindled, the group began accepting bids to scrap the ship; however, sufficient donations came in via extended fundraising. Large donations have kept the ship berthed at her Philadelphia dock while the group continues to further investigate restoration plans.[11]
Design and construction
SS United States colorized promotional B&W photograph. The ship's name and an American flag have been painted in position here as both were missing when this photo was taken during 1952 sea trials.
Inspired by the service of the British liners Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, which transported hundreds of thousands of US troops to Europe during World War II, the US government sponsored the construction of a large and fast merchant vessel that would be capable of transporting large numbers of soldiers. Designed by American naval architect and marine engineer William Francis Gibbs (1886–1967), the liner's construction was a joint effort by the United States Navy and United States Lines. The US government underwrote almost 70% of the US$79.4 million construction cost,[3] with the ship's prospective operators, United States Lines, contributing the remaining $28 million. In exchange, the ship was designed to be easily converted in times of war to a troopship. The ship has a capacity of 15,000 troops, and could also be converted to a hospital ship.[12][self-published source]
The vessel was constructed between 1950 and 1952 at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Newport News, Virginia.[3] The hull was constructed in a dry dock. United States was built to exacting Navy specifications, which required that the ship be heavily compartmentalized, and have separate engine rooms to optimize wartime survivability.[13] A large part of the construction was prefabricated. The ship's hull comprised 183,000 pieces.[14]
The construction of the ship's superstructure involved the most extensive use of aluminum in any construction project up to that time, which posed a galvanic corrosion challenge to the builders in joining the aluminum superstructure to the steel decks below. However, the extensive use of aluminum meant significant weight savings, as well.[15][self-published source]United States had the most powerful steam turbines of any merchant marine vessel at the time, with a total power of 240,000 shp (180 MW) delivered to four 18-foot-diameter (5.5 m) manganese-bronze propellers. The ship was capable of steaming astern at over 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), and could carry enough fuel and stores to steam non-stop for over 10,000 nmi (19,000 km; 12,000 mi).[16][self-published source]
Speed
The maximum speed attained by United States is disputed, as it was once held as a military secret,[17] and complicated by the alleged leak of a top speed of 43 kn (80 km/h) attained after the first speed trial.[18] For example, The New York Times reported in 1968 that the ship could make 42 kn (78 km/h) at a maximum power output of 240,000 hp (180,000 kW).[19] Other sources, including a paper by John J. McMullen & Associates, placed the ship's highest possible sustained top speed at 35 kn (65 km/h).[20] The liner's top speed was later revealed to be 38.32 kn (70.97 km/h), achieved on its full-power trial run on June 10, 1952.[21][22]
Interior design
The interiors were designed by Dorothy Marckwald & Anne Urquhart, the same designers that did the interiors for SS America. The goal was to "create a modern fresh contemporary look that emphasized simplicity over palatial, restrained elegance over glitz and glitter".[23][24] They would also hire artists to produce American themed artwork for the public spaces,[25] including Hildreth Meière, Louis Ross, Peter Ostuni, Charles Lin Tissot, William King, Charles Gilbert, Raymond Wendell, Nathaniel Choate, muralist Austin M. Purves, Jr., and sculptor Gwen Lux.[26][failed verification] Interior décor also included a children's playroom designed by Edward Meshekoff.[27] Markwald and Urquhart were also tasked with the challenge of creating interiors that were completely fireproof.
Fire safety
As a result of various maritime disasters involving fire, including SS Morro Castle and SS Normandie,[28] designer William Francis Gibbs specified that the ship incorporate the most rigid fire safety standards.[29]
To minimize the risk of fire, the designers of United States prescribed using no wood in the ship's framing, accessories, decorations, or interior surfaces, although the galley did feature a wooden butcher's block. Fittings, including all furniture and fabrics, were custom made in glass, metal, and spun-glass fiber, to ensure compliance with fireproofing guidelines set by the US Navy. Asbestos-laden paneling was used extensively in interior structures.[30] The clothes hangers in the luxury cabins were aluminum. The ballroom's grand piano was originally designed to be aluminum, but was made from mahogany and accepted only after a demonstration in which gasoline was poured upon the wood and ignited, without the wood itself ever catching fire.[31]
History
Commercial service (1952–1969)
United States photographed from Portsmouth during her return maiden voyage to New York, summer 1952
On her maiden voyage—July 3–7, 1952 —United States broke the eastbound transatlantic speed record (held by RMS Queen Mary for the previous 14 years) by more than 10 hours, making the maiden crossing from the Ambrose lightship at New York Harbor to Bishop Rock off Cornwall, UK in 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes at an average speed of 35.59 kn (65.91 km/h; 40.96 mph)[32] and winning the coveted Blue Riband.[33] On her return voyage United States also broke the westbound transatlantic speed record, also held by Queen Mary, by returning to America in 3 days 12 hours and 12 minutes at an average speed of 34.51 kn (63.91 km/h; 39.71 mph). In New York her owners were awarded the Hales Trophy, the tangible expression of the Blue Riband competition.[34]
During the 1950s and early 1960s the United States was popular for transatlantic travel. She attracted frequent repeat celebrity passengers, such as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, along with celebrities like Marilyn Monroe, Judy Garland, Cary Grant, Salvador Dalí, Duke Ellington, and Walt Disney, who featured the ship in the 1962 film Bon Voyage!.[35] Another celebrity who was on board the ship was Claude Jones, a trombonist who played with the aforementioned Ellington. He worked as part of the waitstaff who and died on board in 1962.[36]
By the mid-to-late 1960s, with the advent of jet-powered airliners, the market for transatlantic travel by ship had dwindled. America was sold in 1964, Queen Mary was retired in 1967, and Queen Elizabeth in 1968. United States was no longer profitable. Unbeknownst to her passengers, crew, or the public, United States completed her last voyage (Number 400) on November 7, 1969, when she arrived in New York.[citation needed]
In late 1969, before the decision was made to retire the SS United States, United States Lines announced a 55-day Grand Pacific Cruise which was to set sail on January 21, 1970. This was canceled in December 1969.[37]
Layup in Virginia and visit to Europe (1969–1996)
After this voyage, the liner sailed to Newport News for her scheduled annual overhaul. While there, United States Lines announced its decision to withdraw her from service. The decision was due to the skyrocketing expenses of operating the ship and the U.S. government's discontinuation of its operating subsidies. The announcement halted all work on the ship, leaving various tasks incomplete, such as the repainting of the funnels. The partially finished paint coating on the funnels can still be faintly seen today. The ship was sealed up, with all furniture, fittings, and crew uniforms left in place.[28]
In June 1970, the ship was relocated across the James River, to the Norfolk International Terminal, in Norfolk, Virginia. In 1973, the United States Lines officially transferred ownership of the vessel to the United States Maritime Administration. In 1976, Norwegian Caribbean Cruise Line (NCL) was reported to be interested in purchasing the ship and converting her into a Caribbean cruise ship, but the U.S. Maritime Administration refused the sale due to the classified naval design elements of the ship[28] and NCL purchased the former SS France instead. The Navy finally declassified the ship's design features in 1977.[28] That same year, a group headed by Harry Katz sought to purchase the ship and dock her in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where she would be used as a hotel and casino. However, nothing came of the plan.[38]United States was briefly considered by the US Navy to be converted into a troopship or a hospital ship, to be called USS United States. This plan never materialized, being dropped in favor of converting two San Clemente-classsupertankers.[39] The liner was seen as obsolete for Naval use by 1978, and was put up for sale by the U.S. Maritime Administration.
In 1980, the vessel was sold for $5 million to a group headed by Seattle developer Richard H. Hadley, who hoped to revitalize the liner in a time sharecruise ship format.[citation needed]
In 1984, to pay creditors, the ship's fittings and furniture, which had been left in place since 1969, were sold at auction in Norfolk, Virginia.[40] After a week-long auction from October 8–14, 1984, about 3,000 bidders paid $1.65 million for objects from the ship. Some of the artwork and furniture went to various museums including the Mariners' Museum of Newport News, while the largest collection was installed at the now defunct Windmill Point Restaurant in Nags Head, North Carolina.[citation needed]
On March 4, 1989, the vessel was relocated, towed across Hampton Roads to the CSX coal pier in Newport News.[41][page needed]
Richard Hadley's plan of a time-share style cruise ship eventually failed financially, and the ship, which had been seized by US marshals, was put up for auction by the U.S. Maritime Administration on April 27, 1992. At auction, Marmara Marine Inc.—which was headed by Edward Cantor and Fred Mayer with Julide Sadıkoğlu, of the Turkish shipping family, as majority owner—purchased the ship for $2.6 million.[42][43]
The ship was towed to Turkey, departing the US on June 4, 1992, and reaching the Sea of Marmara on July 9. She was then towed to Ukraine, where, in Sevastopol Shipyard, she underwent asbestos removal which lasted from 1993 to 1994.[44] The interior of the ship was almost completely stripped down to the bulkheads during this time. Her open lifeboats which would not meet new SOLAS requirements if the ship were to sail again were also removed and scrapped along with their davits.
In the U.S., no plans could be finalized for re-purposing the vessel, and in June 1996, she was towed back across the Atlantic to South Philadelphia.[45]
Layup in Philadelphia (1996–present)
In November 1997, Edward Cantor purchased the ship for $6 million.[46] Two years later, the SS United States Foundation and the SS United States Conservancy (then known as the SS United States Preservation Society, Inc.) succeeded in having the ship placed on the National Register of Historic Places.[citation needed]
Purchase by Norwegian Cruise Line (2003-2009)
In 2003, Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) purchased the ship at auction from Cantor's estate after his death. NCL's intent was to fully restore the ship to a service role in their newly announced American-flagged Hawaiian passenger service called NCL America. United States was one of the few ships eligible to enter such service because of the Passenger Service Act, which requires that any vessel engaged in domestic commerce be built and flagged in the U.S. and operated by a predominantly American crew.[47] NCL began an extensive technical review in late 2003, after which they stated that the ship was in sound condition. The cruise line cataloged over 100 boxes of the ship's blueprints.[48] In August 2004, NCL commenced feasibility studies regarding a new build-out of the vessel; and in May 2006, Tan Sri Lim Kok Thay, chairman of Malaysia-based Star Cruises (the owner of NCL), stated that United States would be coming back as the fourth ship for NCL after refurbishment.[49] Meanwhile, the Windmill Point restaurant, which had contained some of the original furniture from the ship, closed in 2007. The furniture was donated to the Mariners' Museum and Christopher Newport University, both in Newport News, Virginia.[50]
When NCL America first began operation in Hawaii, it operated the ships Pride of America, Pride of Aloha, and Pride of Hawaii, rather than United States. NCL America later withdrew Pride of Aloha and Pride of Hawaii from its Hawaiian service. In February 2009, it was reported that United States would "soon be listed for sale".[51][52]
Founding of the SS United States Conservancy and potential scrapping (2009-2010)
The SS United States Conservancy was then created that year as a group trying to save United States by raising funds to purchase her.[53] On July 30, 2009, H. F. Lenfest, a Philadelphia media entrepreneur and philanthropist, pledged a matching grant of $300,000 to help the United States Conservancy purchase the vessel from Star Cruises.[54] A noteworthy supporter, former US president Bill Clinton, has also endorsed rescue efforts to save the ship, having sailed on her himself in 1968.[13][55]
In March 2010, it was reported that bids for the ship, to be sold for scrap, were being accepted. Norwegian Cruise Lines, in a press release, noted that there were large costs associated with keeping United States afloat in her current state—around $800,000 a year—and that, as the SS United States Conservancy was not able to tender an offer for the ship, the company was actively seeking a "suitable buyer".[56] By May 7, 2010, over $50,000 was raised by the SS United States Conservancy.[57]
An artist's rendering of the planned "multi-purpose waterfront complex"
In November 2010, the Conservancy announced a plan to develop a "multi-purpose waterfront complex" with hotels, restaurants, and a casino along the Delaware River in South Philadelphia at the proposed location of the stalled Foxwoods Casino project. The results of a detailed study of the site were revealed in late November 2010, in advance of Pennsylvania's December 10, 2010, deadline for a deal aimed at Harrah's Entertainment taking over the casino project. However, the Conservancy's deal soon collapsed, when on December 16, 2010, the state Gaming Control Board voted to revoke the casino's license.[58]
Saved by the SS United States Conservancy (2010-2015)
The Conservancy eventually bought United States from NCL in February 2011 for a reported $3 million with the help of money donated by philanthropist H.F. Lenfest.[59] The group had funds to last 20 months (from July 1, 2010) that were to go to supporting a development plan to clean the ship of toxins and make the ship financially self-supporting, possibly as a hotel or other development project.[60][61] SS United States Conservancy executive director Dan McSweeney stated that he planned on placing the ship at possible locations that include Philadelphia, New York City, and Miami.[60][62]
United States in 2012
The SS United States Conservancy assumed ownership of United States on February 1, 2011.[6][63] Talks about possibly locating the ship in Philadelphia, New York City, or Miami continued into March. In New York City, negotiations with a developer were underway for the ship to become part of Vision 2020, a waterfront redevelopment plan costing $3.3 billion. In Miami, Ocean Group, in Coral Gables, was interested in putting the ship in a slip on the north side of American Airlines Arena.[64] With an additional $5.8 million donation from H. F. Lenfest, the conservancy had about 18 months from March 2011 to make the ship a public attraction.[64] On August 5, 2011, the SS United States Conservancy announced that after conducting two studies focused on placing the ship in Philadelphia, she was "not likely to work there for a variety of reasons". However, discussions to locate the ship at her original home port of New York, as a stationary attraction, were reported to be ongoing.[65] The Conservancy's grant specifies that the refit and restoration must be done in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for the benefit of the Philadelphia economy, regardless of her eventual mooring site.
On February 7, 2012, preliminary work began on the restoration project to prepare the ship for her eventual rebuild, although a contract had not yet been signed.[66] In April 2012, a Request for Qualifications (RFQ) was released as the start of an aggressive search for a developer for the ship. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was issued in May.[67] In July 2012, the SS United States Conservancy launched a new online campaign called "Save the United States", a blend of social networking and micro-fundraising that allowed donors to sponsor square inches of a virtual ship for redevelopment, while allowing them to upload photos and stories about their experience with the ship. The Conservancy announced that donors to the virtual ship would be featured in an interactive "Wall of Honor" aboard the future SS United States museum.[68][69]
By the end of 2012, a developer was to be chosen, who would put the ship in a selected city by summer 2013.[70] In November 2013, it was reported that the ship was undergoing a "below-the-deck" makeover, which lasted into 2014, in order to make the ship more appealing to developers as a dockside attraction. The SS United States Conservancy was warned that if its plans were not realized quickly, there might be no choice but to sell the ship for scrap.[71] In January 2014, obsolete pieces of the ship were sold to keep up with the $80,000-a-month maintenance costs. Enough money was raised to keep the ship going for another six months, with the hope of finding someone committed to the project, New York City still being the likeliest location.[72]
In August 2014, the ship was still moored in Philadelphia and costs for the ship's rent amounted to $60,000 a month. It was estimated that it would take $1 billion to return United States to service on the high seas, although a 2016 estimate for restoration as a luxury cruise ship was said to be, "as much as $700 million".[73][74] On September 4, 2014, a final push was made to have the ship bound for New York City. A developer interested in re-purposing the ship as a major waterfront destination made an announcement regarding the move. The Conservancy had only weeks to decide if the ship needed to be sold for scrap.[75] On December 15, 2014, preliminary agreements in support of the redevelopment of United States were announced. The agreements included providing for three months of carrying costs, with a timeline and more details to be released sometime in 2015.[76][77] In February 2015, another $250,000 was received by the Conservancy from an anonymous donor which went towards planning an onboard museum.[78]
In October 2015, the SS United States Conservancy began exploring potential bids for scrapping the ship. The group was running out of money to cover the $60,000-per-month cost to dock and maintain the ship. Attempts to re-purpose the ship continued. Ideas included using the ship for hotels, restaurants, or office space. One idea was to install computer servers in the lower decks and link them to software development businesses in office space on the upper decks. However, no firm plans were announced. The conservancy said that if no progress was made by October 31, 2015, they would have no choice but to sell the ship to a "responsible recycler".[79] As the deadline passed it was announced that $100,000 had been raised in October 2015, sparing the ship from immediate danger. By November 23, 2015, it was reported that over $600,000 in donations had been received for care and upkeep, buying time well into the coming year for the SS United States Conservancy to press ahead with a plan to redevelop the vessel.[80]
Crystal Cruises purchase option (2016-2018)
On February 4, 2016, Crystal Cruises announced that it had signed a purchase option for United States. Crystal would cover docking costs, in Philadelphia, for nine months while conducting a feasibility study on returning the ship to service as a cruise ship based in New York City.[81][82] On April 9, 2016, it was announced that 600 artifacts from United States would be returned to the ship from the Mariners' Museum and other donors.[83]
On August 5, 2016, the plan was formally dropped, with Crystal Cruises citing the presence of too many technical and commercial challenges. The cruise line then made a donation of $350,000 to help with preservation through the end of the year.[84][85][86] The SS United States Conservancy continued to receive donations, which included one for $150,000 by cruise industry executive Jim Pollin.[8] In January 2018, the conservancy made an appeal to US presidentDonald Trump to take action regarding "America's Flagship".[87] If the group runs out of money, alternative plans for the ship include sinking her as an artificial reef rather than scrapping her.[8]
SS United States docked at Pier 82 in Columbus Boulevard, Philadelphia, on July 16, 2017
On September 20, 2018, the conservancy consulted with Damen Ship Repair & Conversion about redevelopment of United States. Damen had previously converted the former ocean liner and cruise ship SS Rotterdam into a hotel and mixed-use development.[88]
RXR Realty redevelopment plans (2018-present)
On December 10, 2018, the conservancy announced an agreement with the commercial real estate firm RXR Realty, of New York City, to explore options for restoring and redeveloping the ocean liner.[89] In 2015, RXR had expressed interest in developing an out-of-commission ocean liner as a hotel and event venue at Pier 57 in New York.[90] The conservancy requires that any redevelopment plan preserve the ship's profile and exterior design, and include approximately 25,000 sq ft (2,323 m2) for an onboard museum.[88] RXR's press release about United States stated that multiple locations would be considered, depending on the viability of restoration plans.[89][90]
In March 2020, RXR Realty announced its plans to repurpose the ocean liner as a permanently-moored 600,000 sq ft (55,740 m2) hospitality and cultural space, requesting expressions of interest from a number of major US waterfront cities including Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Miami, Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego.[91]
In 2023, a more detailed plan for her redevelopment was released by RXR Realty and MCR Hotels. According to this plan, the ship would serve as a 1,000 room hotel, museum, event venue, public park, and a dining location. New York City was highlighted as the best location for the ship, ideally along the Hudson River and moorned to a specially built pier. New York City was selected as the best location due to existing infrastructure and the nearby Javits Convention Center.[92]
The 2023 plan also included several rendered images of the redesigned United States. These images depict the ship docked along Manhattan's West Side at a public pier located in the Hudson River Park. In addition, aspects of the hotel were depicted. A key element of the hotel would be one of the ship's funnels, with the top removed and exposed to the sky. This would act as a skylight, illuminating the hotel and event spaces. In addition, the plan also consist of hotel rooms held in the lifeboat davits, a pool between the funnels, and an aft mix interior-exterior ballroom to provide spaces for both hotel and venue operations.[92]
2021 Pier 82 rent increase
A dispute over the 2021 increase of Pier 82's daily rent, from US$850 to US$1700, as well as US$160,000 in unpaid back rent, could cause the ship to lose her berth.[93] A trial on the matter in federal court in Philadelphia ran from January 17 to January 18, 2024, with a decision expected in March of April.[94]
Artifacts
Artwork
The Mariners' Museum of Newport News, Virginia, holds many objects from United States, including the ''Expressions of Freedom'' by Gwen Lux, the aluminum sculpture from the main dining room, purchased during the 1984 auction.[40]
Artwork designed by Charles Gilbert that included glass panels etched with sea creatures and plants from the first-class ballroom, were purchased by Celebrity Cruises and had initially been incorporated on board the Infinity in her SS United States-themed specialty restaurant.[95]
The ship's bell is kept in the clock tower on the campus of Christopher Newport University in Newport News, Virginia. It is used to celebrate special events, including being rung by incoming freshman and by outgoing graduates.[98]
One of the ship's horns stood on display for decades above the Rent-A-Tool building in Revere, Massachusetts, and has since been sold to a private collector in Texas for $8,000 in 2017.[99]
The large collection of dining room furniture and other memorabilia that had been purchased during the 1984 auction, and incorporated at the Windmill Point Restaurant in Nags Head, North Carolina, was donated to the Mariners' Museum and Christopher Newport University in Newport News after the restaurant shut down in 2007.[100] The chairs from the tourist class dining room are used in the Mariners' Museum cafe.
Speed records
With both the eastbound and westbound speed records, SS United States obtained the Blue Riband which marked the first time a US-flagged ship had held the record since SS Baltic claimed the prize 100 years earlier. United States maintained a 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) crossing speed on the North Atlantic in a service career that lasted 17 years. The ship remained unchallenged for the Blue Riband throughout her career. During this period the fast trans-Atlantic passenger trade moved to air travel, and many regard the story of the Blue Riband as having ended with United States.[101]
Her east-bound record has since been broken several times (first, in 1986, by Virgin Atlantic Challenger II), and her west-bound record was broken in 1990 by Destriero, but these vessels were not passenger-carrying ocean liners. The Hales Trophy itself was lost in 1990 to Hoverspeed Great Britain, setting a new eastbound speed record for a commercial vessel.[102]
A Man and His Ship: America's Greatest Naval Architect and His Quest to Build the S.S. United States, Steven Ujifusa, Simon & Schuster; Reprint edition (June 4, 2013), ISBN1451645090
Crossing on Time: Steam Engines, Fast Ships, and a Journey to the New World,David Macaulay, Roaring Brook Press (May 7, 2019),ISBN1596434775
Picture History of the SS United States, William H. Miller, Dover Publications (July 12, 2012), ASINB00A73FIMK
SS United States: An Operational Guide to America's Flagship, James Rindfleisch, Schiffer; (June 2023), ISBN978-0764366550
SS United States: America's Superliner, Les Streater, Maritime Publishing Co. (2011),ISBN0953103560
S.S. United States: The Story of America's Greatest Ocean Liner, William H. Miller, W.W. Norton & Company (1991), ISBN0393030628
S.S. United States: Fastest Ship in the World, Frank Braynard & Robert Hudson Westover, Turner Publishing Company (2002), ISBN1563118246
SS United States, Andrew Britton, The History Press (July 15, 2012), ISBN0752479539
SS United States: Red, White, and Blue Riband, Forever, John Maxtone-Graham, W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 27, 2014), ISBN039324170X
SS United States: Speed Queen of the Seas, William H. Miller, Amberley Publishing (March 24, 2015), ASINB00V76G2O4
SS United States: Ship of Power, Might, and Indecision, William Miller, Fonthill Media, (March 22, 2022), ISBN1625451156
Superliner S.S. United States, Henry Billings, The Viking Press (1953)
The Big Ship: The Story of the S.S. United States, Frank O. Braynard, Turner (1981), ISBN1596527641[107]
The Last Great Race, The S.S. United States and the Blue Riband, Lawrence M. Driscoll, The Glencannon Press; First edition, first printing. (June 17, 2013)
^"How fast did it go". Nautilus. University of Michigan Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department. 25: 8.
^Horne, George (August 16, 1968). "Secrets of the Liner United States". The New York Times. p. 35. Retrieved February 16, 2023. The decision to unclassify the superior military qualities of the big ship revealed, among other things, that her propulsion plants developed 240,000 horsepower – nearly 100,000 horses more than the world's biggest liners – and that she could make 42 knots, or better than 48 land-miles an hour.
^Richtun, Tatiana (July 12, 2007). "Асбестовый след корабля 'Юнайтед Стейтс'" [Asbestos footprint of the ship United States]. Sevastopol Gazette (in Russian). Retrieved February 22, 2022.
.jpg)
United States
