Miniature in Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry depicting the Baptism of Jesus, when God the Father proclaimed that Jesus is his Son.

Historically, many rulers have assumed titles such as the son of God, the son of a god or the son of heaven.[1]

The term "Son of God" is used in the Hebrew Bible as another way to refer to humans who have a special relationship with God. In Exodus, the nation of Israel is called God's firstborn son.[2] Solomon is also called "son of God".[3][4] Angels, just and pious men, and the kings of Israel are all called "sons of God."[5]

In the New Testament of the Christian Bible, "Son of God" is applied to Jesus on many occasions.[5] On two occasions, Jesus is recognized as the Son of God by a voice which speaks from Heaven. Jesus explicitly and implicitly describes himself as the Son of God and he is also described as the Son of God by various individuals who appear in the New Testament.[5][6][7][8] Jesus is called the "Son of God," and followers of Jesus are called, "Christians."[9] As applied to Jesus, the term is a reference to his role as the Messiah, or Christ, the King chosen by God.[10][11] The contexts and ways in which Jesus' title, Son of God, means something more or something other than the title Messiah remain the subject of ongoing scholarly study and discussion.

The term "Son of God" should not be confused with the term "God the Son" (Greek: Θεός ὁ υἱός), the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology. The doctrine of the Trinity identifies Jesus as God the Son, identical in essence but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God the Holy Spirit (the First and Third Persons of the Trinity). Nontrinitarian Christians accept the application to Jesus of the term "Son of God", which is found in the New Testament.

Rulers and imperial titles

Main articles: Divi filius, Imperial cult, Imperial cult (ancient Rome), Son of Heaven, and Sacred king

Throughout history, emperors and rulers ranging from the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 BC) in China to Alexander the Great (c. 360 BC) to the Emperor of Japan (c. 600 AD) have assumed titles that reflect a filial relationship with deities.[1][12][13][14]

The title "Son of Heaven" i.e. 天子 (from 天 meaning sky/heaven/god and 子 meaning child) was first used in the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 BC). It is mentioned in the Shijing book of songs, and reflected the Zhou belief that as Son of Heaven (and as its delegate) the Emperor of China was responsible for the well-being of the whole world by the Mandate of Heaven.[12][13] This title may also be translated as "son of God" given that the word Tiān in Chinese may either mean sky or god.[15] The Emperor of Japan was also called the Son of Heaven (天子 tenshi) starting in the early 7th century.[16]

Among the Eurasian nomads, there was also a widespread use of "Son of God/Son of Heaven" for instance, in the third century BC, the ruler was called Chanyü[17] and similar titles were used as late as the 13th century by Genghis Khan.[18]

Examples of kings being considered the son of god are found throughout the Ancient Near East. Egypt in particular developed a long lasting tradition. Egyptian pharaohs are known to have been referred to as the son of a particular god and their begetting in some cases is even given in sexually explicit detail. Egyptian pharaohs did not have full parity with their divine fathers but rather were subordinate.[19]: 36  Nevertheless, in the first four dynasties, the pharaoh was considered to be the embodiment of a god. Thus, Egypt was ruled by direct theocracy,[20] wherein "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state.[21] During the later Amarna Period, King Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten redefined the pharaoh's godship. He taught "there was only one god and only one person who now knew the god: Akhenaten himself" and assumed position of the ḥm ntr tpy (first servant of god).[22] He eventually eliminated all representation on his behalf by the priests of Amun as he also eliminated the god Amun, to solely lead worship identifying as the Son of the God he called Father, the latter which he recognized through the aten (sun), the vehicle through which the power of the God manifested to him.[23] Within a few years of his first epiphany and becoming king, King Akhenaten had dropped the priestly title of ḥm ntr tpy, but remained serving as the sole cleric and son of the Father in his rule of the Two Lands.[24] Later still, the closest Egypt came to the Jewish variant of theocracy was during the reign of Herihor. He took on the role of ruler not as a god but rather as a high-priest and king.[20]

According to the Bible, several kings of Damascus took the title son of Hadad. From the archaeological record a stela erected by Bar-Rakib for his father Panammuwa II contains similar language. The son of Panammuwa II a king of Sam'al referred to himself as a son of Rakib.[19]: 26–27  Rakib-El is a god who appears in Phoenician and Aramaic inscriptions.[25] Panammuwa II died unexpectedly while in Damascus.[26] However, his son the king Bar-Rakib was not a native of Damascus but rather the ruler of Sam'al it is unknown if other rules of Sam'al used similar language.

In Greek mythology, Heracles (son of Zeus) and many other figures were considered to be sons of gods through union with mortal women. From around 360 BC onwards Alexander the Great may have implied he was a demigod by using the title "Son of Ammon–Zeus".[27]

A denarius minted circa 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVS IVLIV(S)

In 42 BC, Julius Caesar was formally deified as "the divine Julius" (divus Iulius) after his assassination. His adopted son, Octavian (better known as Augustus, a title given to him 15 years later, in 27 BC) thus became known as divi Iuli filius (son of the divine Julius) or simply divi filius (son of the god).[28] As a daring and unprecedented move, Augustus used this title to advance his political position in the Second Triumvirate, finally overcoming all rivals for power within the Roman state.[28][29]

The word which was applied to Julius Caesar when he was deified was divus, not the distinct word deus. Thus, Augustus called himself Divi filius, not Dei filius.[30] The line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and Augustus seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity.[30] As a purely semantic mechanism, and to maintain ambiguity, the court of Augustus sustained the concept that any worship given to an emperor was paid to the "position of emperor" rather than the person of the emperor.[31] However, the subtle semantic distinction was lost outside Rome, where Augustus began to be worshiped as a deity.[32] The inscription DF thus came to be used for Augustus, at times unclear which meaning was intended.[30][32] The assumption of the title Divi filius by Augustus meshed with a larger campaign by him to exercise the power of his image. Official portraits of Augustus made even towards the end of his life continued to portray him as a handsome youth, implying that miraculously, he never aged. Given that few people had ever seen the emperor, these images sent a distinct message.[33]

Later, Tiberius (emperor from 14 to 37 AD) came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus and Hadrian as the son of divus Trajan.[28] By the end of the 1st century, the emperor Domitian was being called dominus et deus (i.e. master and god).[34]

Outside the Roman Empire, the 2nd-century Kushan King Kanishka I used the title devaputra meaning "son of God".[35]

Baháʼí Faith

In the writings of the Baháʼí Faith, the term "Son of God" is applied to Jesus,[36] but does not indicate a literal physical relationship between Jesus and God,[37] but is symbolic and is used to indicate the very strong spiritual relationship between Jesus and God[36] and the source of his authority.[37] Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, also noted that the term does not indicate that the station of Jesus is superior to other prophets and messengers that Baháʼís name Manifestation of God, including Buddha, Muhammad and Baha'u'llah among others.[38] Shoghi Effendi notes that, since all Manifestations of God share the same intimate relationship with God and reflect the same light, the term Sonship can in a sense be attributable to all the Manifestations.[36]

Christianity

Main article: Son of God (Christianity)

See also: God the Son, Jesus in Christianity, Divine filiation, and Adoptionism

In Christianity, the title "Son of God" refers to the status of Jesus as the divine son of God the Father.[39][40] It derives from several uses in the New Testament and early Christian theology. The term is used in all four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pauline and Johannine literature.

Another interpretation stems from the Judaic understanding of the title, which describes all human beings as being Sons of God. In parts of the Old Testament, historical figures like Jacob and Solomon are referred to as Sons of God, referring to their descent from Adam. Biblical scholars use this title as a way of affirming Jesus' humanity, that he is fully human but, also sent from his father who is God almighty alone as mentioned in John 3:16.

Islam

See also: Jesus in Islam, Tawhid, and Shirk (Islam)

in islam the idea of the Son of God in Islam is completely rejected in any form other like metaphor or reality because they see it as a lie about God and that it is a negative characteristic of God.[41]

In Islam, Jesus is known as Īsā ibn Maryam (Arabic: عيسى بن مريم, lit. 'Jesus, son of Mary'), and is understood to be a prophet and messenger of God (Allah) and al-Masih, the Arabic term for Messiah (Christ), sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl in Arabic) with a new revelation, the al-Injīl (Arabic for "the gospel").[42][43][44]

Islam rejects any kinship between God and any other being, including a son.[45][46] Thus, rejecting the belief that Jesus is the begotten son of God, God himself[47] or another god.[48] As in Christianity, Islam believes Jesus had no earthly father. In Islam Jesus is believed to be born due to the command of God "be".[49] God ordered[45] the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) to "blow"[50] the soul of Jesus into Mary[51][52] and so she gave birth to Jesus.

Judaism

Statue of King David by Nicolas Cordier in the Borghese Chapel of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore

Further information: Sons of God and Son of God (Christianity) § Old Testament usage

Although references to "sons of God", "son of God" and "son of the LORD" are occasionally found in Jewish literature, they never refer to physical descent from God.[53][54] There are two instances where Jewish kings are figuratively referred to as a god.[55]: 150  [56] These terms are often used in the general sense in which the Jewish people were referred to as "children of the LORD your God".[53]

When it was used by the rabbis, the term referred to Israel in particular or it referred to human beings in general, it was not used as a reference to the Jewish mashiach.[53] In Judaism the term mashiach has a broader meaning and usage and can refer to a wide range of people and objects, not necessarily related to the Jewish eschaton.

Gabriel's Revelation

Main article: Messiah ben Joseph

Gabriel's Revelation, also called the Vision of Gabriel[57] or the Jeselsohn Stone,[58] is a three-foot-tall (one metre) stone tablet with 87 lines of Hebrew text written in ink, containing a collection of short prophecies written in the first person and dated to the late 1st century BC.[59][60] It is a tablet described as a "Dead Sea scroll in stone".[59][61]

The text seems to talk about a messianic figure from Ephraim who broke evil before righteousness[clarification needed] by three days.[62]: 43–44  Later the text talks about a "prince of princes" a leader of Israel who was killed by the evil king and not properly buried.[62]: 44  The evil king was then miraculously defeated.[62]: 45  The text seems to refer to Jeremiah Chapter 31.[62]: 43  The choice of Ephraim as the lineage of the messianic figure described in the text seems to draw on passages in Jeremiah, Zechariah and Hosea. This leader was referred to as a son of God.[62]: 43–44, 48–49 

The text seems to be based on a Jewish revolt recorded by Josephus dating from 4 BC.[62]: 45–46  Based on its dating the text seems to refer to Simon of Peraea, one of the three leaders of this revolt.[62]: 47 

Dead Sea Scrolls

In some versions of Deuteronomy the Dead Sea Scrolls refer to the sons of God rather than the sons of Israel, probably in reference to angels. The Septuagint reads similarly.[55]: 147 [63]

4Q174 is a midrashic text in which God refers to the Davidic messiah as his son.[64]

4Q246 refers to a figure who will be called the son of God and son of the Most High. It is debated if this figure represents the royal messiah, a future evil gentile king or something else.[64][65]

In 11Q13 Melchizedek is referred to as god the divine judge. Melchizedek in the bible was the king of Salem. At least some in the Qumran community seemed to think that at the end of days Melchizedek would reign as their king.[66] The passage is based on Psalm 82.[67]

Pseudepigrapha

In both Joseph and Aseneth and the related text The Story of Asenath, Joseph is referred to as the son of God.[55]: 158–159 [68] In the Prayer of Joseph both Jacob and the angel are referred to as angels and the sons of God.[55]: 157 

Talmud

This style of naming is also used for some rabbis in the Talmud.[55]: 158 

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Introduction to the Science of Religion by Friedrich Muller 2004 ISBN 1-4179-7401-X page 136
  2. ^ Exodus 4:22
  3. ^ The Tanach - The Torah/Prophets/Writings. Stone Edition. 1996. p. 741. ISBN 0-89906-269-5.
  4. ^ The Tanach - The Torah/Prophets/Writings. Stone Edition. 1996. p. 1923. ISBN 0-89906-269-5.
  5. ^ a b c "Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  6. ^ One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3-11-018151-7 pages 240–241
  7. ^ Dwight Pentecost The words and works of Jesus Christ 2000 ISBN 0-310-30940-9 page 234
  8. ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 pages 571–572
  9. ^ "International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Sons of God (New Testament)". BibleStudyTools.com. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  10. ^ Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.) (2001). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
  11. ^ Matthew 26:63
  12. ^ a b China : a cultural and historical dictionary by Michael Dillon 1998 ISBN 0-7007-0439-6 page 293
  13. ^ a b East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History by Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais 2008 ISBN 0-547-00534-2 page 16
  14. ^ A History of Japan by Hisho Saito 2010 ISBN 0-415-58538-4 page
  15. ^ The Problem of China by Bertrand Russell 2007 ISBN 1-60520-020-4 page 23
  16. ^ Boscaro, Adriana; Gatti, Franco; Raveri, Massimo, eds. (2003). Rethinking Japan: Social Sciences, Ideology and Thought. Vol. II. Japan Library Limited. p. 300. ISBN 0-904404-79-X.
  17. ^ Britannica, Encyclopaedia. "Xiongnu". Xiongnu (people) article. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
  18. ^ Darian Peters (July 3, 2009). "The Life and Conquests of Genghis Khan". Humanities 360. Archived from the original on April 26, 2014.
  19. ^ a b Adela Yarbro Collins; John Joseph Collins (2008). King and Messiah as Son of God: Divine, Human, and Angelic Messianic Figures in Biblical and Related Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-0772-4. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  20. ^ a b Jan Assmann (2003). The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. Harvard University Press. pp. 300–301. ISBN 978-0-674-01211-0. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  21. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  22. ^ Stevens, Anna. "Akhenaten, Nefertiti & Aten: From Many Gods to One". American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE). Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  23. ^ Hoffmeier, James (2015). Akhenaten and the Origins of Monotheism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 198–206. ISBN 978-0-19-979208-5.
  24. ^ Hoffmeier, James (2015). Akhenaten and the Origins of Monotheism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-0-19-979208-5.
  25. ^ K. van der Toorn; Bob Becking; Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible DDD. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 686. ISBN 978-0-8028-2491-2. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  26. ^ K. Lawson Younger Jr. "Panammuwa and Bar-Rakib: two structural analyses" (PDF). University of Sheffield. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  27. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great". History Today. 54: 1.
  28. ^ a b c Early Christian literature by Helen Rhee 2005 ISBN 0-415-35488-9 pages 159–161
  29. ^ Augustus by Pat Southern 1998 ISBN 0-415-16631-4 page 60
  30. ^ a b c The world that shaped the New Testament by Calvin J. Roetzel 2002 ISBN 0-664-22415-6 page 73
  31. ^ Experiencing Rome: culture, identity and power in the Roman Empire by Janet Huskinson 1999 ISBN 978-0-415-21284-7 page 81
  32. ^ a b A companion to Roman religion edited by Jörg Rüpke 2007 ISBN 1-4051-2943-3 page 80
  33. ^ Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective by Fred S. Kleiner 2008 ISBN 0-495-57355-8 page 175
  34. ^ The Emperor Domitian by Brian W. Jones 1992 ISBN 0-415-04229-1 page 108
  35. ^ Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations by Charles Higham 2004 ISBN 978-0-8160-4640-9 page 352
  36. ^ a b c Lepard, Brian D (2008). In The Glory of the Father: The Baháʼí Faith and Christianity. Baháʼí Publishing Trust. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-1-931847-34-6.
  37. ^ a b Taherzadeh, Adib (1977). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 2: Adrianople 1863–68. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 182. ISBN 0-85398-071-3.
  38. ^ Hornby, Helen, ed. (1983). Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File. New Delhi, India: Baháʼí Publishing Trust. p. 491. ISBN 81-85091-46-3.
  39. ^ J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann, Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2010, p. 634-635
  40. ^ Schubert M. Ogden, The Understanding of Christian Faith, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2010, p. 74
  41. ^ "Can a person who believes that Jesus is the son of God be a Muslim? - Islam Question & Answer". islamqa.info. Retrieved 2024-05-01.
  42. ^ Glassé, Cyril (2001). The new encyclopedia of Islam, with introduction by Huston Smith (Édition révisée. ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6.
  43. ^ McDowell, Jim, Josh; Walker, Jim (2002). Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them. Euguen, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7369-4991-0.
  44. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, p.158
  45. ^ a b "Surah An-Nisa [4:171]". Surah An-Nisa [4:171]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  46. ^ "Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:116]". Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:116]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  47. ^ "Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:72]". Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:72]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  48. ^ "Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:75]". Surah Al-Ma'idah [5:75]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  49. ^ "Surah Ali 'Imran [3:59]". Surah Ali 'Imran [3:59]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  50. ^ "Surah Al-Anbya [21:91]". Surah Al-Anbya [21:91]. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  51. ^ Jesus: A Brief History by W. Barnes Tatum 2009 ISBN 1-4051-7019-0 page 217
  52. ^ The new encyclopedia of Islam by Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith 2003 ISBN 0-7591-0190-6 page 86
  53. ^ a b c The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion by Maxine Grossman and Adele Berlin (Mar 14, 2011) ISBN 0-19-973004-0 page 698
  54. ^ The Jewish Annotated New Testament by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Z. Brettler (Nov 15, 2011) ISBN 0-19-529770-9 page 544
  55. ^ a b c d e Riemer Roukema (2010). Jesus, Gnosis and Dogma. T&T Clark International. ISBN 978-0-567-46642-6. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  56. ^ Jonathan Bardill (2011). Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0. Retrieved 4 February 2014.
  57. ^ "By Three Days, Live": Messiahs, Resurrection, and Ascent to Heavon in Hazon Gabriel[permanent dead link], Israel Knohl, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
  58. ^ "The First Jesus?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2010-08-19. Retrieved 2010-08-05.
  59. ^ a b Yardeni, Ada (Jan–Feb 2008). "A new Dead Sea Scroll in Stone?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 34 (1).
  60. ^ van Biema, David; Tim McGirk (2008-07-07). "Was Jesus' Resurrection a Sequel?". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on July 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
  61. ^ Ethan Bronner (2008-07-05). "Tablet ignites debate on messiah and resurrection". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-07. The tablet, probably found near the Dead Sea in Jordan according to some scholars who have studied it, is a rare example of a stone with ink writings from that era — in essence, a Dead Sea Scroll on stone.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g Matthias Henze (2011). Hazon Gabriel. Society of Biblical Lit. ISBN 978-1-58983-541-2. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
  63. ^ Michael S. Heiser (2001). "DEUTERONOMY 32:8 AND THE SONS OF GOD". Archived from the original on 29 May 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  64. ^ a b Markus Bockmuehl; James Carleton Paget, eds. (2007). Redemption and Resistance: The Messianic Hopes of Jews and Christians in Antiquity. A&C Black. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-567-03043-6. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  65. ^ EDWARD M. COOK. "4Q246" (PDF). Bulletin for Biblical Research 5 (1995) 43-66 [© 1995 Institute for Biblical Research]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  66. ^ David Flusser (2007). Judaism of the Second Temple Period: Qumran and Apocalypticism. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-8028-2469-1. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  67. ^ Jerome H. Neyrey (2009). The Gospel of John in Cultural and Rhetorical Perspective. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 313–316. ISBN 978-0-8028-4866-6.
  68. ^ "The Story of Asenath" and "Joseph and Aseneth". Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha and Sacred Writings. Retrieved 30 January 2014.

Bibliography

  • Borgen, Peder. Early Christianity and Hellenistic Judaism. Edinburgh: T & T Clark Publishing. 1996.
  • Brown, Raymond. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday. 1997.
  • Essays in Greco-Roman and Related Talmudic Literature. ed. by Henry A. Fischel. New York: KTAV Publishing House. 1977.
  • Dunn, J. D. G., Christology in the Making, London: SCM Press. 1989.
  • Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds in Early Christianity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing. 1993.
  • Greene, Colin J. D. Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons. Grand Rapids: InterVarsity Press. Eerdmans Publishing. 2003.
  • Holt, Bradley P. Thirsty for God: A Brief History of Christian Spirituality. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 2005.
  • Josephus, Flavius. Complete Works. trans. and ed. by William Whiston. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publishing. 1960.
  • Letham, Robert. The Work of Christ. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. 1993.
  • Macleod, Donald. The Person of Christ. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. 1998.
  • McGrath, Alister. Historical Theology: An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 1998.
  • Neusner, Jacob. From Politics to Piety: The Emergence of Pharisaic Judaism. Providence, R. I.: Brown University. 1973.
  • Norris, Richard A. Jr. The Christological Controversy. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. 1980.
  • O'Collins, Gerald. Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus. Oxford:Oxford University Press. 2009.
  • Pelikan, Jaroslav. Development of Christian Doctrine: Some Historical Prolegomena. London: Yale University Press. 1969.
  • —— The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1971.
  • Schweitzer, Albert. Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of the Progress from Reimarus to Wrede. trans. by W. Montgomery. London: A & C Black. 1931.
  • Tyson, John R. Invitation to Christian Spirituality: An Ecumenical Anthology. New York: Oxford University Press. 1999.
  • Wilson, R. Mcl. Gnosis and the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. 1968.
  • Witherington, Ben III. The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. 1995.
  • —— "The Gospel of John." in The Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. ed. by Joel Greene, Scot McKnight and I. Howard
Categories