Map of the Sorbian-Lusatian tribes between the 7th and 11th century, by Wilhelm Bogusławski, 1861
Sorbs and their sub-tribes, Luzici, Milceni and Daleminci, seen in the southwest corner of early West Slavic tribal area, by W. Fix, 1869

The Sorbs, also known as Serbs or White Serbs in Serbian historiography, were an Early Slavic tribe settled between Saale-Elbe valley up to Lusatian Neisse (in present-day Saxony and Thuringia). They were part of the Polabian Slavs and Wends group of Early Slavs. In the 7th century, the tribe joined Samo's Empire and part of them emigrated from their homeland White Serbia to the Southeast Europe. The tribe is last mentioned in the late 10th century, but its descendants can be found among Germanized people of Saxony and Slavic ethnic group of Sorbs in Lusatia, and Serbs in Southeastern Europe.

Etymology

Main article: Names of the Serbs and Serbia

They are mentioned between the 6th and 10th century as Cervetiis (Servetiis), gentis (S)urbiorum, Suurbi, Sorabi, Soraborum, Sorabos, Surpe, Sorabici, Sorabiet, Sarbin, Swrbjn, Servians, Zribia, and Suurbelant.[1] It is generally considered that their ethnonym *Sŕbъ (plur. *Sŕby) originates from Proto-Slavic language with a appellative meaning of a "family kinship" and "alliance", while other argue a derivation from Iranian-Sarmatian language.[1][2][3][4]

History

7th century

See also: Leipzig group, White Serbia, and Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe
Dervan's Sorbian province
Slavic and Serbian migrations to the Balkans.

According to the old theorization by Joachim Herrmann, the Serbian tribe characterized by Rüssen-type of Leipzig group pottery arrived from the Middle Danube in the beginning of the 7th century and settled between Saale and Elbe river, but only since the 10th century their ethnonym was transferred to the Luzici, Milceni and other tribes of Sukow-Dziedzice and Tornow group who supposedly were present from the late 5th and early 6th century (Tornow since 7th; it was also argued that to the West were present some Slavs with Prague-Korchak culture).[5][6][7] Herrmann also considered that the Sorbs settled and influenced around Magdeburg, Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria,[8] and alongside them immigrated Croats and Bulgars from Middle Danube.[9] However, since 1980s Herrmann's theory is outdated and rejected by archaeologists, historians and other scholars because it was found to be completely unfounded and based on wrong data and chronologies among others,[10][11][12][13] with Peter Heather concluding that it is an "old theory" with seriously erroneous dating of the ceramics and sites, which in reality date to the 8th and 9th century.[14] The archaeological data and historical sources indicate earliest Slavic migration along the Carpathians and the Alps since the late 6th century with Korchak-type material.[15][16]

It is considered that their earliest mention is at least from the 6th century or earlier by Vibius Sequester, who recorded Cervetiis (Servetiis) living on the other part of the river Elbe which divided them from the Suevi (Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cerveciis dividiit).[1][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] According to one theory such an early mention is related to possible westward migration of Alanic tribe of Serboi with the Huns, who later subjugated Slavic population giving it their name.[24] According to Lubor Niederle, the Serbian district was located somewhere between Magdeburg and Lusatia, and was later mentioned by the Ottonians as Ciervisti, Zerbisti, and Kirvisti.[25] According to a fringe theory their area of settlement possibly also included part of Chebsko (the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic),[19][26] but it is a baseless claim without a source, and scholars, including E. Simek proved only Czechs lived there.[26] Henryk Łowmiański concluded that there's no mention of Sorbs/Serbs living in the territory of Bohemia in Czech and German historical sources.[26]

The information by Vibius Sequester is in accordance with the Frankish 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar according to which the Surbi lived in the Saale-Elbe valley, having settled in the Thuringian part of Francia at least since the second-half of the 6th century and were vassals of Merovingian dynasty.[19][27][28] The Saale-Elbe line marked the approximate limit of Slavic westward migration.[29] Fredegar recounts that under the leadership of dux (duke) Dervan (Dervanus dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum), they joined the Slavic tribal union of Samo, after Samo's decisive victory against Frankish King Dagobert I in 631.[27][28] Afterwards, these Slavic tribes continuously raided Thuringia.[27] The fate of the tribes after Samo's death and dissolution of the union in 658 is undetermined, but it is considered that subsequently returned to Frankish vassalage.[30]

According to 10th-century source De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII, writing on the Serbs and their lands previously dwelt in, they lived "since the beginning" in the region called by them as Boiki (Bohemia; a mistake by Constantine VII which should be understood as "near" instead of "in"[26]) which was a neighbor to Francia, and when two brothers succeeded their father, one of them migrated with half of the people from White Serbia to the Balkans during the rule of Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius (610–641) in the first half of the 7th century.[31][32] This account is related to Fredegar's as the revolt against the Avars after the Siege of Constantinople (626) coincides with the period of Heraclius, when Byzantine Empire was also in crisis and likely used the Slavs against the Avars in the Western frontier of the Empire. It is considered that they arrived as a small military elite which managed to organize other already settled and more numerous Slavs, and that the Serbs most probably did not fight the Avars as there's no evidence and mention of it in historical sources.[33][34][35] According to some scholars, the White Serbian Unknown Archon who led them to the Balkans was most likely a son, brother or other relative of Dervan.[35][36][37][38]

8th century

In 782, the Sorbs, inhabiting the region between the Elbe and Saale, plundered Thuringia and Saxony.[39] Charlemagne sent Adalgis, Worad and Geilo into Saxony, aimed at attacking the Sorbs, however, they met with rebel Saxons who destroyed them.[40]

In 789, Charlemagne launched a campaign against the Wiltzi; after reaching the Elbe, he went further and successfully "subjected the Slavs".[41] His army also included the Slavic Sorbs and Obotrites, under Witzan.[41] The army reached Dragovit, who surrendered, followed by other Slavic magnates and chieftains who submitted to Charlemagne.[41]

9th century

See also: Sorbian March
Map of the Sorbian March, by Włodzimierz Dzwonkowski, 1918

The Sorbs ended their partial vassalage to the Franks (the Carolingian Empire) and revolted, invading Austrasia;[when?] Charles the Younger launched a campaign against the Slavs in Bohemia in 805, killing their dux, Lecho, and then proceeded crossing the Saale with his army and killed rex (king) Melito (or "Miliduoch") of the Sorabi or Siurbis, near modern-day Weißenfels, in 806.[42][43][44] The region was laid to waste, upon which the other Slavic chieftains submitted and gave hostages.[45][46] The rebellious Sorbs were compelled in 816 to renew their oaths of submission.[44][47]

In May 826, at a meeting at Ingelheim, Cedrag of the Obotrites and Tunglo of the Sorbs were accused of malpractices; they were ordered to appear in October, after Tunglo surrendered his son as hostage and was allowed to return home.[48] The Franks had, sometime before the 830s, established the Sorbian March, comprising eastern Thuringia, in easternmost East Francia.

In 839, the Saxons fought "the Sorabos, called Colodici" at Kesigesburch and won the battle, managing to kill their king Cimusclo (or "Czimislav"), with Kesigesburch and eleven forts being captured.[44][49] The Sorbs were forced to pay tribute and forfeited territory to the Franks.[49] The Sorbian tribe of Colodici was furthermore mentioned in 973 (Coledizi pagus, Cholidici), in 975 (Colidiki), and 1015 (Colidici locus).[50] Besides Colodici other tribes which scholars consider part of the core Sorbian tribes were Glomacze-Daleminzi, Chutici-Chudzicy, Citici-Żytyce, Neletici-Nieletycy, Siusler-Susłowie among others.[5][51]

The mid-9th century Bavarian Geographer mentioned the Surbi having 50 civitates (Iuxta illos est regio, que vocatur Surbi, in qua regione plures sunt, que habent civitates L).[52][1] Alfred the Great in his Geography of Europe (888–893) relying on Orosius, recorded the Servians; "To the north-east of the Moravians are the Dalamensae; east of the Dalamensians are the Horithi, and north of the Dalamensians are the Servians; to the west also are the Silesians. To the north of the Horiti is Mazovia, and north of Mazovia are the Sarmatians, as far as the Riphean Mountains".[53]

It is considered that in the second-half of the 9th century, Svatopluk I of Moravia (r. 871–894) may have incorporated the Sorbs into Great Moravia.[29]

10th century

The Arab historians and geographers Al-Masudi and Al-Bakri (10th and 11th century) writing on the Saqaliba mentioned the Sarbin or Sernin living between the Germans and the Moravians, a "Slavic people much feared for reasons that it would take too long to explain and whose deeds would need much too detailed an account. They have no particular religious affiliation". They, like other Slavs, "have the custom of burning themselves alive when a king or chieftain dies. They also immolate his horses".[54][55][56] In the Hebrew book Josippon (10th century) are listed four Slavic ethnic names from Venice to Saxony; Mwr.wh (Moravians), Krw.tj (Croats), Swrbjn (Sorbs), Lwcnj (Lučané or Lusatians).[26]

Between 932 and 963 the Sorbs lost their independence.[57] Henry the Fowler had subjected the Stodorane in 928, and in the following year imposed overlordship on the Obotrites and Veletians, and strengthened the grip on the Sorbs.[58] Bishop Boso of St. Emmeram (d. 970), a Slav-speaker, had considerable success in Christianizing the Sorbs.[59]

In the 10th century the region came under the influence of the Duchy of Saxony, starting with the 928 eastern campaigns of King Henry the Fowler, who conquered the Sorbs and Milceni (Upper Lusatia) by 932.[citation needed] Gero II, Margrave of the Saxon Eastern March, reconquered Lusatia the following year and, in 939, murdered 30 Sorbian princes during a feast.[citation needed] As a result, many Sorbian uprisings followed.[citation needed] The March of Lusatia was established in 965, remaining part of the Holy Roman Empire, while the adjacent Northern March was again lost in the Slavic uprising of 983.[citation needed] The later Upper Lusatian region of the Milceni lands up to the Silesian border at the Kwisa river at first was part of the Margraviate of Meissen under Margrave Eckard I.[citation needed] A reconstructed castle, at Raddusch in Lower Lusatia, is the sole physical remnant from this early period.[citation needed] These are the last mentions of the tribe.

Aftermath

Main article: Sorbs

Since then the Sorbian tribes disappeared from the political scene. From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture east of Elbe River developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. The Slavs were allowed to live mainly in the periphery of the cities, and the military-administrative as well as religious authority was in the hands of the Germans. Despite the long process of Germanization, part of the Slavs living in Lusatia preserved their identity and language until now, and in the early 20th century there lived some 150 thousand Lusatian Sorbs.[5]

Organization

According to Rostyslav Vatseba, "between the Elbe and Saale rivers the heterachical dryht-type state existed during the reign of Miliduch (before 806). The local society of the White Serbs was of clan character, which indicates the beginnings of state formation. The Sorbian 'civitates' are equal to simple chiefdoms, the particular clan regions correspond with complex chiefdoms. The high king ('rex supérbus') had only hegemonic authority over the heads of the clan regions ('ceteri reges'). Later on in the 9th & early 10th century the political unity of the Sorbi region was lost, despite of presumably more hierarchical mode of government in the Colodici's principality of Czimislav (830s). The author suggests that Colodici's 'castellа' served as places of the high prince's dryht members ('witsessen') residence, providing the ability to control the neighbouring clans. Such a system presumably could have persisted to the times of Čestibor".[60]

Rulers

Monarch Reign
Dervan c. 615 – 636
Miliduch c. 790 – 806
Tunglo c. 826
Czimislav c. 830 – 840
Čestibor c. 840 – 859
Slavibor c. 859 – 894
Other notable people

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Łuczyński, Michal (2017). ""Geograf Bawarski" — nowe odczytania" ["Bavarian Geographer" — New readings]. Polonica (in Polish). XXXVII (37): 71. doi:10.17651/POLON.37.9. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  2. ^ Rudnicki, Mikołaj (1959). Prasłowiańszczyzna, Lechia-Polska (in Polish). Państwowe wydawn. naukowe, Oddzia ︢w Poznaniu. p. 182.
  3. ^ Pohl, Heinz-Dieter (1970). "Die slawischen Sprachen in Jugoslawien" [The Slavic languages in Yugoslavia]. Der Donauraum (in German). 15 (1–2): 72. doi:10.7767/dnrm.1970.15.12.63. S2CID 183316961. Srbin, Plural Srbi: „Serbe", wird zum urslawischen *sirbŭ „Genosse" gestellt und ist somit slawischen Ursprungs41. Hrvat „Kroate", ist iranischer Herkunft, über urslawisches *chŭrvatŭ aus altiranischem *(fšu-)haurvatā, „Viehhüter"42.
  4. ^ Popowska-Taborska, Hanna (1993). "Ślady etnonimów słowiańskich z elementem obcym w nazewnictwie polskim". Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Linguistica (in Polish). 27: 225–230. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  5. ^ a b c Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevich (2013) [1995]. Славяне в раннем Средневековье [Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages)]. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. pp. 191–205, 458–466. ISBN 978-86-6263-026-1.
  6. ^ Brather 2004, pp. 316–326.
  7. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409.
  8. ^ Herrmann 1970, pp. 9, 26–27, 32.
  9. ^ Herrmann 1970, pp. 27.
  10. ^ Barford 2001, pp. 65, 89, 277–278, 280.
  11. ^ Brather, 2004, p. 316–326; 2008, pp. 47–48, 56–58; 2011, p. 455; 2020, p. 219
  12. ^ Roslund 2007, pp. 190.
  13. ^ Schuster-Šewc, Heinz. "Порекло и историја етнонима Serb "Лужички Србин"". rastko.rs (in Serbian). Translated by Petrović, Tanja. Пројекат Растко - Будишин. Облик прихваћен у данашњем говорном немачком језику са вокалом о- (такође и старија форма са -у), непознат је лужичкосрпском језику у Горњој и Доњој Лужици, а према изворима био је ограничен само на западни део старолужичког, западно од реке Mulde и Saale. Одавде је овај облик доспео у средњи век и у латинске и немачке хронике, а касније је одатле пренесен на источније насељена старолужичка племена (Glomaci, Nisani, Milzani), остајући међутим и даље ограничен само на изворе на немачком и латинском језику ... Узрок томе свакако лежи у опасности од мешања са именом јужнословенских Срба. Неосновано је у сваком случају мишљење које заступају неки историчари и археолози, према коме источни Лужичани и Милчани првобитно уопште етнички нису припадали истој групи са Лужичким Србима насељеним западно од Елбе, и према коме је етноним Serb тек касније (од 10/11. века) пренесен и на њих.
  14. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 409–410:The new chronologies have also put paid to older theories that an initial Slavic penetration into the Elbe region in the later fifth or sixth centuries was followed by a second wave of migration in the seventh. This hypothesis had in mind a potential parallel with the Serbs and Croats and the Balkans. It was based, however, on the appearance of brand-new types of pottery in the Elbe region, which were finished on a slow wheel rather than entirely hand-formed. The geographical spread of the subtypes of this pottery broadly coincides with the main tribal confederations known from the Carolingian and Ottonian eras (Map 18): the Wilzi (Feldberg pottery), the Lausitzi (Tornow pottery) and the Sorbs (Leipzig pottery). It used therefore to be thought that the appearance of the new pottery types marked the arrival in the region of these tribal groups. Dendrochronology has shown, however, that the sites containing these wheel-turned pottery types date not from the late sixth and the seventh century, but from the later eighth and ninth. By this date, Carolingian narrative coverage of the region is more than full enough to rule out the possibility of any further large-scale migration. The new pottery types therefore represent the spread of new ceramic technologies among Slavs already indigenous to the Elbe region. The later dating also makes much better sense of the fact that some of the pottery resembles eighth century Carolingian ceramics, by which they were clearly influenced
  15. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 408–410.
  16. ^ Michel Kazanski (2020). "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations". Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online. BRILL, pp. 15–16
  17. ^ Fischer, Adam (1932). Etnografja Słowiańska: Łużyczanie (in Polish). Ksia̧żnica-Atlas. p. 46. Najdawniejszą wzmiankę o plemionach łużyckich mamy u Wibia Sequestra (VI w.), że „Albis Suevos a Cervetiis dividit". Następnie wiemy, że w latach 623–631 istniało Księstwo łużyckie nad Salą, a wedle Fredegara...
  18. ^ Małowist, Marian (1954). Materiały źródłowe do historii Polski epoki feudalnej (in Polish). Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. p. 47. Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cervetiis dividit. (Rzeka) Łaba oddziela Swewów1 od Serbów... Swewowie oznaczają tu znany lud germański, który w początkach n . e . mieszkał nad Łabą, a następnie...
  19. ^ a b c Simek, Emanuel (1955). Chebsko V Staré Dobe: Dnesní Nejzápadnejsi Slovanské Území (in Czech). Vydává Masarykova Universita v Brne. pp. 47, 269, 271, 274. O Srbech máme zachován první historický záznam ze VI. století u Vibia Sequestra, který praví, že Labe dělí v GermaniinSrby od Suevů65. Tím ovšem nemusí být řečeno, že v končinách severně od českých hor nemohli býti Srbové již i za Labem (západně od Labe), neboť nevíme, koho Vibius Sequester svými Suevy mínil. Ať již tomu bylo jakkoli, víme bezpečně ze zpráv kroniky Fredegarovy, že Srbové měli celou oblast mezi Labem a Sálou osídlenu již delší dobu před založením říše Samovy66, tedy nejméně již v druhé polovici VI. století67. Jejich kníže Drevan se osvobodil od nadvlády francké a připojil se někdy kolem roku 630 se svou državou k říši Samově68. V následujících letech podnikali Srbové opětovně vpády přes Sálu do Durinska 69... 67 Schwarz, ON 48, dospěl k závěru, že se země mezi Labem a Sálou stala srbskou asi r. 595 a kolem roku 600 že bylo slovanské stěhování do končin západně od Labe určitě již skončeno; R. Fischer, GSl V. 58, Heimatbildung XVIII. 298, ON Falk. 59, NK 69 datuje příchod Slovanů na Chebsko do druhé polovice VI. století, G. Fischer(ová), Flurnamen 218, do VI. století. Chebský historik Sieg1 dospěl v posledním svém souhrnném díle o dějinách Chebska Eger u. Egerland 4 k závěru, že Slované (myslil na Srby) přišli do Chebska již kolem roku 490, tedy před koncem V. století.
  20. ^ Sułowski, Zygmunt (1961). "Migracja Słowian na zachód w pierwszym tysiącleciu n. e." Roczniki Historyczne (in Polish). 27: 50–52. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  21. ^ Tyszkiewicz, Lech A. (1990). Słowianie w historiografii antycznej do połowy VI wieku (in Polish). Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. p. 124. ISBN 978-83-229-0421-3. ...Germaniae Suevos a Cervetiis dividit mergitur in oceanum". Według Szafarzyka, który odrzucił emendację Oberlina Cervetiis na Cheruscis, zagadkowy lud Cervetti to nikt inny, jak tylko Serbowie połabscy.
  22. ^ Dulinicz, Marek (2001). Kształtowanie się Słowiańszczyzny Północno-Zachodniej: studium archeologiczne (in Polish). Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk. p. 17. ISBN 978-83-85463-89-4.
  23. ^ Moczulski, Leszek (2007). Narodziny Międzymorza: ukształtowanie ojczyzn, powstanie państw oraz układy geopolityczne wschodniej części Europy w późnej starożytności i we wczesnym średniowieczu (in Polish). Bellona. pp. 335–336. Tak jest ze wzmianką Vibiusa Sequestra, pisarza z przełomu IV—V w., którą niektórzy badacze uznali za najwcześniejszą informację o Słowianach na Polabiu: Albis Germaniae Suevon a Cervetiis dividit (Vibii Sequestris, De fluminibus, fontibus, lacubus, memoribus, paludibus, montibus, gentibus, per litteras, wyd. Al. Riese, Geographi latini minores, Heilbronn 1878). Jeśli początek nazwy Cerve-tiis odpowiadał Serbe — chodziło o Serbów, jeśli Cherue — byli to Cheruskowie, choć nie można wykluczyć, że pod tą nazwą kryje się jeszcze inny lud (por. G. Labuda, Fragmenty dziejów Słowiańszczyzny Zachodniej, t. 1, Poznań 1960, s. 91; H. Lowmiański, Początki Polski..., t. II, Warszawa 1964, s. 296; J. Strzelczyk, Vibius Sequester [w:] Slownik Starożytności Słowiańskich, t. VI, Wroclaw 1977, s. 414). Pierwsza ewentualność sygeruje, że zachodnia eks-pansja Słowian rozpoczęta się kilka pokoleń wcześniej niż się obecnie przypuszcza, druga —że rozgraniczenie pomiędzy Cheruskami a Swebami (Gotonami przez Labę względnie Semnonami przez Soławę) uksztaltowało się — być może po klęsce Marboda — dalej na południowy wschód, niżby wynikało z Germanii Tacyta (patrz wyżej). Tyle tylko, że nie będzie to sytuacja z IV w. Istnienie styku serbsko-turyńskiego w początkach VII w. potwierdza Kronika Fredegara (Chronicarum quae dicuntw; Fredegari scholastici, wyd. B., Krusch, Monu-menta Gennaniae Bisiorka, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, t. II, Hannover 1888, s. 130); bylby on jednak późniejszy niż styk Franków ze Slowianami (Sldawami, Winklami) w Alpach i na osi Dunaju. Tyle tylko, te o takim styku możemy mówić dopiero w końcu VI w.
  24. ^ Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Thames and Hudson. pp. 189–190. ISBN 9780500020715.
  25. ^ Fomina, Z.Ye. (2016). "Славянская топонимия в современной Германии в лингвокультуроло-гическоми лингво-историческом аспек" [Slavonic Toponymy in Linguoculturological and Linguo-historical Aspects in Germany]. Современные лингвистические и методико-дидактические исследования (in Russian). 1 (12): 30. Retrieved 4 August 2020. Как следует из многотомного издания „Славянские древности" (1953) известного чешского ученого Любора Нидерле, первым историческим известием о славянах на Эльбе является запись Вибия Секвестра «De fluminibus» (VI век), в которой об Эльбе говорится: «Albis Suevos a Cervetiis dividit». Cervetii означает здесь наименованиесербскогоокруга (pagus) на правом берегу Эльбы, между Магдебургом и Лужицами, который в позднейших грамотах Оттона I, Оттона II и Генриха II упоминается под терминомCiervisti, Zerbisti, Kirvisti,нынешний Цербст[8]. В тот период, как пишет Любор Нидерле, а именно в 782 году, началось большое, имевшее мировое значение, наступление германцев против сла-вян. ПерейдяЭльбу, славяне представляли большую опасность для империи Карла Вели-кого. Для того, чтобы создать какой-то порядок на востоке, Карл Великий в 805 году соз-дал так называемый limes Sorabicus, который должен был стать границей экономических (торговых) связеймежду германцами и славянами[8].
  26. ^ a b c d e Łowmiański, Henryk (2004) [1964]. Nosić, Milan (ed.). Hrvatska pradomovina (Chorwacja Nadwiślańska in Początki Polski) [Croatian ancient homeland] (in Croatian). Translated by Kryżan-Stanojević, Barbara. Maveda. pp. 76–77, 84–86. OCLC 831099194.
  27. ^ a b c Sigfried J. de Laet; Joachim Herrmann (1 January 1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. pp. 282–284. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
  28. ^ a b Gerald Stone (2015). Slav Outposts in Central European History: The Wends, Sorbs and Kashubs. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4725-9211-8.
  29. ^ a b Vlasto 1970, p. 142.
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