Campus protest or student protest is a form of student activism that takes the form of protest at university campuses. Such protests encompass a wide range of activities that indicate student dissatisfaction with a given political or academics issue and mobilization to communicate this dissatisfaction to the authorities (university or civil or both) and society in general and hopefully remedy the problem. Protest forms include but are not limited to: sit-ins, occupations of university offices or buildings, strikes etc. More extreme forms include suicide such as the case of Jan Palach's,^[1] and Jan Zajíc's protests against the end of the Prague Spring^[2] and Kostas Georgakis' protest against the Greek junta of 1967–1974.^{[3][4][5][6][7][8][dubious – discuss]}

History

In the West, student protests such as strikes date to the early days of universities in the Middle Ages, with some of the earliest being the University of Oxford strike of 1209,^[9][10] and the University of Paris strike of 1229, which lasted two years.

More widespread student demonstrations occurred in 19th century Europe, for example in Imperial Russia.^[11] In 1930s, some Polish students protested against anti-Semitic ghetto benches legislation.^[12] In the second half of the 20th century, significant demonstrations almost-simultaneously in many countries: the May 68 events in France began as a series of student strikes;^[13] Polish political crisis that occurred the same year also saw a major student activism;^[14] and the Mexican Movement of 1968 also started with students. The largest student strike in the history of the United States occurred in May and June 1970, in the aftermath of the American invasion of Cambodia and the killings of student protesters at Kent State University in Ohio. An estimated four million students at more than 450 universities, colleges and high schools participated in what became known as the Student strike of 1970.^[15]

It has been argued that student strikes and activism have a similarly long history in Confucian Asia.^[16]

Participation and issues

Early studies of campus protests conducted in the United States in the mid-1960s suggested that students who were more likely to take part in the protests tended to come from middle class and upper middle class backgrounds, major in social sciences and humanities, and come from families with liberal political views.^[17] Later studies from early 1970s, however, suggested that participation in protests was broader, through still more likely for students from social sciences and humanities than more vocational-oriented fields like economy or engineering.^[17] Student protesters were also more likely to describe themselves as having liberal or centrist political beliefs, and feeling politically alienated, lacking confidence in the party system and public officials.^[17]

Early campus protests in the United States were described as left-leaning and liberal.^[17] More recent research^[when?] shares a similar view, suggesting that right-leaning, conservative students and faculty are less likely to organize or join campus protests.^[18] A study of campus protests in the United States in the early 1990s identified major themes for approximately 60% of over two hundred incidents covered by media as multiculturalism and identity struggle, or in more detail as racial and ethnic struggle, women's concerns, or gay rights activities and represent what recent scholars have described both affectionately and pejoratively as "culture/cultural wars," "campus wars," "multicultural unrest," or "identity politics"... The remaining examples of student protest concerned funding (including tuition concerns), governance, world affairs, and environmental causes".^[19]

While less common, protests similar to campus protests can also happen at secondary-level education facilities, like high schools.^[17]

Forms

Repertoire of contention in campus protests can take various forms, from peaceful sit-ins, marches, teach-ins, to more active forms that can spread off-campus and include violent clashes with the authorities.^[17][20] Campus protests can also involve faculty members participating in them in addition to students, through protests led by or organized by faculty, rather than students, are a minority.^[21][22] Just like students can worry about being expelled for participation in the protests, some faculty members are concerned about their job security if they were to become involved in such incidents.^{[23][18][24][25]}

A common tactic of student protest is to go on strike (sometimes called a boycott of classes), which occurs when students enrolled at a teaching institution such as a school, college or university refuse to go to class. It is meant to resemble strike action by organized labour. Whereas a normal strike is intended to inflict economic damage to an employer, a student strike is more of a logistical threat: the concerned institution or government cannot afford to have a large number of students simultaneously fail to graduate. The term "student strike" has been criticized as inaccurate by some unions^[26] and commentators in the news media.^[27] These groups have indicated that they believe the term boycott is more accurate.^[26][27]

Student protests can often spread off-campus and grow in scale, mobilizing off campus activists and organizations, for example the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign led to the city-wide 2014 Hong Kong protests.^[28]

Response and aftermath

Over time, university tolerance of campus protests have grown; while protests occurred before the 20th century they were more likely to be "crushed... with an iron fist... by university leaders" than by mid-20th century, when they have become much more common and tolerated. By the early 21st century, the university response to campus protest in the United States is much more likely to be negotiations, and willingness to yield at least to some of the student demands.^[29] There was a resurgence of student activism in the United States in 2015.^[30] (In Germany, tuition in public universities were abolished in response to student protests between 2006-2012.^[31])

University response to student activism and campus protests can still be much harsher in less liberal countries like China or Taiwan.^[23] In 1980 student protests in South Korea were violently suppressed by the military (the Gwangju Uprising).^[32] As recently as in 1989 a large scale student demonstration in China that moved off-campus, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, was met with deadly force.^[33]

Examples