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((Use British English|date=September 2016))((More citations needed
|date = September 2016
))[[Image:LightHair.jpg|thumb|right|A subwavelength-diameter fibre wraps light around human hair.]]
A '''subwavelength-diameter optical fibre''' ('''SDF''' or '''SDOF''') is an [[optical fibre]] whose diameter is less than the wavelength of the light being propagated through it. An SDF usually consists of long thick parts (same as conventional optical fibres) at both ends, transition regions (tapers) where the fibre diameter gradually decreases down to the subwavelength value, and a subwavelength-diameter waist, which is the main acting part. Due to such a strong geometrical confinement, the guided [[electromagnetic field]] in an SDF is restricted to a [[Single-mode optical fiber|single]] [[Mode (electromagnetism)|mode]] called ''fundamental''.

==Name==
There is no general agreement on how these optical elements are to be named; different groups prefer to emphasize different properties of such fibres, sometimes even using different terms. The names in use include subwavelength waveguide,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Foster|first1 = M. A.|last2 = Gaeta|first2 = A. L.|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.12.003137|title = Ultra-low threshold supercontinuum generation in sub-wavelength waveguides|journal = Optics Express|volume = 12|issue = 14|pages = 3137–3143|year = 2004|pmid =  19483834|bibcode = 2004OExpr..12.3137F |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> subwavelength optical wire,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Jung|first1 = Y.|last2 = Brambilla|first2 = G.|last3 = Richardson|first3 = D. J.|doi = 10.1364/OE.16.014661|title = Broadband single-mode operation of standard optical fibers by using a sub-wavelength optical wire filter|journal = Optics Express|volume = 16|issue = 19|pages = 14661–14667|year = 2008|pmid =  18795003|bibcode = 2008OExpr..1614661J |url = https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/65474/1/4200.pdf)) ((open access))</ref> subwavelength-diameter [[silica]] wire,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Tong|first1 = L.|last2 = Gattass|first2 = R. R.|last3 = Ashcom|first3 = J. B.|last4 = He|first4 = S.|last5 = Lou|first5 = J.|last6 = Shen|first6 = M.|last7 = Maxwell|first7 = I.|last8 = Mazur|first8 = E.|doi = 10.1038/nature02193|title = Subwavelength-diameter silica wires for low-loss optical wave guiding|journal = Nature|volume = 426|issue = 6968|pages = 816–819|year = 2003|pmid =  14685232|url=ftp://www.ece.buap.mx/pub/profesor/academ07/BOOK/8.pdf|bibcode = 2003Natur.426..816T |s2cid = 15048914))</ref> subwavelength diameter fibre taper,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Mägi|first1 = E. C.|last2 = Fu|first2 = L. B.|last3 = Nguyen|first3 = H. C.|last4 = Lamont|first4 = M. R.|last5 = Yeom|first5 = D. I.|last6 = Eggleton|first6 = B. J.|doi = 10.1364/OE.15.010324|title = Enhanced Kerr nonlinearity in sub-wavelength diameter As2Se3 chalcogenide fiber tapers|journal = Optics Express|volume = 15|issue = 16|pages = 10324–10329|year = 2007|pmid =  19547382|bibcode = 2007OExpr..1510324M |s2cid = 14870791|doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Zhang|first1 = L.|last2 = Gu|first2 = F.|last3 = Lou|first3 = J.|last4 = Yin|first4 = X.|last5 = Tong|first5 = L.|title = Fast detection of humidity with a subwavelength-diameter fiber taper coated with gelatin film|doi = 10.1364/OE.16.013349|journal = Optics Express|volume = 16|issue = 17|pages = 13349–13353|year = 2008|pmid =  18711572|bibcode = 2008OExpr..1613349Z |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> ([[photonic]]) wire [[waveguide]],<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Liang|first1 = T. K.|last2 = Nunes|first2 = L. R.|last3 = Sakamoto|first3 = T.|last4 = Sasagawa|first4 = K.|last5 = Kawanishi|first5 = T.|last6 = Tsuchiya|first6 = M.|last7 = Priem|first7 = G. R. A.|last8 = Van Thourhout|first8 = D.|last9 = Dumon|first9 = P.|last10 = Baets|first10 = R.|last11 = Tsang|first11 = H. K.|author-link11=Hon Ki Tsang|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.13.007298|title = Ultrafast all-optical switching by cross-absorption modulation in silicon wire waveguides|journal = Optics Express|volume = 13|issue = 19|pages = 7298–7303|year = 2005|pmid =  19498753|bibcode = 2005OExpr..13.7298L |hdl = 1854/LU-327594|url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/327594|hdl-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|vauthors=Espinola R, Dadap J, Osgood R Jr, McNab S, Vlasov Y|title = C-band wavelength conversion in silicon photonic wire waveguides|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.13.004341|journal = Optics Express|volume = 13|issue = 11|pages = 4341–4349|year = 2005|pmid =  19495349|bibcode = 2005OExpr..13.4341E |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> photonic wire,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Lizé|first1 = Y. K.|last2 = Mägi|first2 = E. C.|last3 = Ta'Eed|first3 = V. G.|last4 = Bolger|first4 = J. A.|last5 = Steinvurzel|first5 = P.|last6 = Eggleton|first6 = B.|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.12.003209|title = Microstructured optical fiber photonic wires with subwavelength core diameter|journal = Optics Express|volume = 12|issue = 14|pages = 3209–3217|year = 2004|pmid =  19483844|bibcode = 2004OExpr..12.3209L |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Zheltikov|first1 = A.|title = Gaussian-mode analysis of waveguide-enhanced Kerr-type nonlinearity of optical fibers and photonic wires|doi = 10.1364/JOSAB.22.001100|journal = Journal of the Optical Society of America B|volume = 22|issue = 5|pages = 1100|year = 2005|bibcode = 2005JOSAB..22.1100Z )) ((closed access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Konorov|first1 = S. O.|last2 = Akimov|first2 = D. A.|last3 = Serebryannikov|first3 = E. E.|last4 = Ivanov|first4 = A. A.|last5 = Alfimov|first5 = M. V.|last6 = Dukel'Skii|first6 = K. V.|last7 = Khokhlov|first7 = A. V.|last8 = Shevandin|first8 = V. S.|last9 = Kondrat'Ev|first9 = Y. N.|last10 = Zheltikov|first10 = A. M.|doi = 10.1002/lapl.200410176|title = High-order modes of photonic wires excited by the Cherenkov emission of solitons|journal = Laser Physics Letters|volume = 2|issue = 5|pages = 258–261|year = 2005|bibcode = 2005LaPhL...2..258K | s2cid=122277596 )) ((closed access))</ref> photonic [[nanowire]],<ref name="review">((Cite journal|last1 = Foster|first1 = M. A.|last2 = Turner|first2 = A. C.|last3 = Lipson|first3 = M.|last4 = Gaeta|first4 = A. L.|title = Nonlinear optics in photonic nanowires|doi = 10.1364/OE.16.001300|journal = Optics Express|volume = 16|issue = 2|pages = 1300–1320|year = 2008|pmid =  18542203|bibcode = 2008OExpr..16.1300F |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Wolchover|first1 = N. A.|last2 = Luan|first2 = F.|last3 = George|first3 = A. K.|last4 = Knight|first4 = J. C.|last5 = Omenetto|first5 = F. G.|title = High nonlinearity glass photonic crystal nanowires|doi = 10.1364/OE.15.000829|journal = Optics Express|volume = 15|issue = 3|pages = 829–833|year = 2007|pmid =  19532307|bibcode = 2007OExpr..15..829W |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Tong|first1 = L.|last2 = Hu|first2 = L.|last3 = Zhang|first3 = J.|last4 = Qiu|first4 = J.|last5 = Yang|first5 = Q.|last6 = Lou|first6 = J.|last7 = Shen|first7 = Y.|last8 = He|first8 = J.|last9 = Ye|first9 = Z.|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.14.000082|title = Photonic nanowires directly drawn from bulk glasses|journal = Optics Express|volume = 14|issue = 1|pages = 82–87|year = 2006|pmid =  19503319|bibcode = 2006OExpr..14...82T |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> optical nanowires,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Siviloglou|first1 = G. A.|last2 = Suntsov|first2 = S.|last3 = El-Ganainy|first3 = R.|last4 = Iwanow|first4 = R.|last5 = Stegeman|first5 = G. I.|last6 = Christodoulides|first6 = D. N.|last7 = Morandotti|first7 = R.|author-link7=Roberto Morandotti |last8 = Modotto|first8 = D.|last9 = Locatelli|first9 = A.|last10 = De Angelis|first10 = C.|last11 = Pozzi|first11 = F.|last12 = Stanley|first12 = C. R.|last13 = Sorel|first13 = M.|title = Enhanced third-order nonlinear effects in optical AlGaAs nanowires|doi = 10.1364/OE.14.009377|journal = Optics Express|volume = 14|issue = 20|pages = 9377–9384|year = 2006|pmid =  19529322|bibcode = 2006OExpr..14.9377S |url = https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7594&context=facultybib2000|doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> optical fibre nanowires,<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.orc.soton.ac.uk/ofnrd.html|title=Optical Fibre Nanowires and Related Devices Group|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070220021709/http://www.orc.soton.ac.uk/ofnrd.html|archive-date=2007-02-20|publisher=University of Southampton|url-status=dead))</ref> tapered (optical) fibre,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Dumais|first1 = P.|last2 = Gonthier|first2 = F.|last3 = Lacroix|first3 = S.|last4 = Bures|first4 = J.|last5 = Villeneuve|first5 = A.|last6 = Wigley|first6 = P. G. J.|last7 = Stegeman|first7 = G. I.|doi = 10.1364/OL.18.001996|title = Enhanced self-phase modulation in tapered fibers|journal = Optics Letters|volume = 18|issue = 23|pages = 1996|year = 1993|pmid =  19829470|bibcode = 1993OptL...18.1996D )) ((closed access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Cordeiro|first1 = C. M. B.|last2 = Wadsworth|first2 = W. J.|last3 = Birks|first3 = T. A.|last4 = Russell|first4 = P. S. J.|title = Engineering the dispersion of tapered fibers for supercontinuum generation with a 1064 nm pump laser|doi = 10.1364/OL.30.001980|journal = Optics Letters|volume = 30|issue = 15|pages = 1980–1982|year = 2005|pmid =  16092239|bibcode = 2005OptL...30.1980C )) ((closed access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Dudley|first1 = J. 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M.|last6 = Russell|first6 = P. S. J.|doi = 10.1364/JOSAB.19.002148|title = Supercontinuum generation in photonic crystal fibers and optical fiber tapers: A novel light source|journal = Journal of the Optical Society of America B|volume = 19|issue = 9|pages = 2148|year = 2002|bibcode = 2002JOSAB..19.2148W )) ((open access))</ref> [[Submicron design|submicron]]-diameter silica fibre,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Shi|first1 = L.|last2 = Chen|first2 = X.|last3 = Liu|first3 = H.|last4 = Chen|first4 = Y.|last5 = Ye|first5 = Z.|last6 = Liao|first6 = W.|last7 = Xia|first7 = Y.|doi = 10.1364/OE.14.005055|title = Fabrication of submicron-diameter silica fibers using electric strip heater|journal = Optics Express|volume = 14|issue = 12|pages = 5055–5060|year = 2006|pmid =  19516667|bibcode = 2006OExpr..14.5055S |s2cid = 12286605|doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref>((Cite journal 
|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.12.000776|last1 = Mägi|first1 = E.|last2 = Steinvurzel|first2 = P.|last3 = Eggleton|first3 = B.|title = Tapered photonic crystal fibers|journal = Optics Express|volume = 12|issue = 5|pages = 776–784|year = 2004|pmid = 19474885|bibcode = 2004OExpr..12..776M |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> ultrathin optical fibres,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Sagué|first1 = G.|last2 = Baade|first2 = A.|last3 = Rauschenbeutel|first3 = A.|doi = 10.1088/1367-2630/10/11/113008|title = Blue-detuned evanescent field surface traps for neutral atoms based on mode interference in ultrathin optical fibres|journal = New Journal of Physics|volume = 10|issue = 11|pages = 113008|year = 2008|bibcode = 2008NJPh...10k3008S|arxiv = 0806.3909 |s2cid = 18601905)) ((open access))</ref> optical [[Nanofiber|nanofibre]],<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Nayak|first1 = K. P.|last2 = Melentiev|first2 = P. N.|last3 = Morinaga|first3 = M.|last4 = Kien|first4 = F. L.|last5 = Balykin|first5 = V. I.|last6 = Hakuta|first6 = K.|doi = 10.1364/OE.15.005431|title = Optical nanofiber as an efficient tool for manipulating and probing atomic Fluorescence|journal = Optics Express|volume = 15|issue = 9|pages = 5431–5438|year = 2007|pmid =  19532797|bibcode = 2007OExpr..15.5431N |url = https://zenodo.org/record/898770|doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref><ref name=":1">((Cite journal|last1=Morrissey|first1=Michael J.|last2=Deasy|first2=Kieran|last3=Frawley|first3=Mary|last4=Kumar|first4=Ravi|last5=Prel|first5=Eugen|last6=Russell|first6=Laura|last7=Truong|first7=Viet Giang|last8=Nic Chormaic|first8=Síle|date=August 2013|title=Spectroscopy, Manipulation and Trapping of Neutral Atoms, Molecules, and Other Particles Using Optical Nanofibers: A Review|journal=Sensors|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|pages=10449–10481|doi=10.3390/s130810449|pmc=3812613|pmid=23945738|arxiv=1306.5821|bibcode=2013Senso..1310449M|doi-access=free))</ref> optical [[Microfiber|microfibres]],<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Xu|first1 = F.|last2 = Horak|first2 = P.|last3 = Brambilla|first3 = G.|doi = 10.1364/OE.15.007888|title = Optical microfiber coil resonator refractometric sensor|journal = Optics Express|volume = 15|issue = 12|pages = 7888–7893|year = 2007|pmid =  19547115|bibcode = 2007OExpr..15.7888X | s2cid=42262445 |url = https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/65742/1/oe_15_12_7888.pdf)) ((open access))</ref> submicron fibre waveguides,<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Leon-Saval|first1 = S. G.|last2 = Birks|first2 = T. A.|last3 = Wadsworth|first3 = W. J.|last4 = St j Russell|first4 = P.|last5 = Mason|first5 = M. W.|title = Supercontinuum generation in submicron fibre waveguides|doi = 10.1364/OPEX.12.002864|journal = Optics Express|volume = 12|issue = 13|pages = 2864–2869|year = 2004|pmid =  19483801|bibcode = 2004OExpr..12.2864L |doi-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> micro/nano optical wires (MNOW).

The term ''waveguide'' can be applied not only to fibres, but also to other waveguiding structures such as [[silicon photonic]] subwavelength waveguides.<ref>((Cite journal|last1 = Koos|first1 = C.|last2 = Jacome|first2 = L.|last3 = Poulton|first3 = C.|last4 = Leuthold|first4 = J.|last5 = Freude|first5 = W.|title = Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing|doi = 10.1364/OE.15.005976|journal = Optics Express|volume = 15|issue = 10|pages = 5976–5990|year = 2007|pmid =  19546900|bibcode = 2007OExpr..15.5976K |hdl = 10453/383|url = https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/383/1/2007002659.pdf|hdl-access = free)) ((open access))</ref> The term ''submicron'' is often synonymous to ''subwavelength'', as the majority of experiments are carried out using light with a wavelength between 0.5 and 1.6&nbsp;µm.<ref name="review" /> All the names with the prefix ''nano-'' are somewhat misleading, since it is usually applied to objects with dimensions on the scale of nanometers (e.g., [[nanoparticle]], [[nanotechnology]]). The characteristic behaviour of the SDF appears when the fibre diameter is about half of the wavelength of light. That is why the term ''subwavelength'' is the most appropriate for these objects.((original research inline|date=September 2016))

==Manufacturing==
An SDF is usually created by tapering a commercial, usually [[Step-index profile|step-index]], optical fibre. Special pulling machines accomplish the process.

An optical fibre usually consists of a core, a [[Cladding (fiber optics)|cladding]], and a protective coating. Before pulling a fibre, its coating is removed (i.e., the fibre is [[Stripping (fiber)|stripped]]). The ends of the bare fibre are fixed onto movable "translation" stages on the machine. The middle of the fibre (between the stages) is then heated with a flame (such as of burning [[oxyhydrogen]]) or a [[laser beam]]; at the same time, the translation stages move in opposite directions. The glass melts and the fibre is elongated, while its diameter decreases.<ref name=":0">((Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=J. M.|last2=Maimaiti|first2=A.|last3=Le|first3=Vu H.|last4=Chormaic|first4=S. Nic|date=2014-11-01|title=Contributed Review: Optical micro- and nanofiber pulling rig|url=https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.4901098|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=85|issue=11|pages=111501|doi=10.1063/1.4901098|pmid=25430090|issn=0034-6748|arxiv=1402.6396|bibcode=2014RScI...85k1501W|s2cid=7985175))</ref>

Using the described method, waists between 1 and 10&nbsp;mm in length and diameters down to 100&nbsp;nm are obtained. In order to minimize the losses of light to [[Radiation mode|unbound modes]], one must control the pulling process so that the tapering angles satisfy the [[Adiabatic theorem|adiabatic condition]]<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Love|first1=J.D.|last2=Henry|first2=W.M.|last3=Stewart|first3=W.J.|last4=Black|first4=R.J.|last5=Lacroix|first5=S.|last6=Gonthier|first6=F.|date=1991|title=Tapered single-mode fibres and devices. Part 1: Adiabaticity criteria|url=https://doi.org/10.1049/ip-j.1991.0060|journal=IEE Proceedings J - Optoelectronics|volume=138|issue=5|pages=343|doi=10.1049/ip-j.1991.0060|issn=0267-3932))</ref> by not exceeding a certain value, usually in the order of a few [[milliradian]]. For this purpose, a laser beam is coupled to the fibre being pulled and the output light is monitored by an [[optical power meter]] throughout the whole process. A good-quality SDF would transmit over 95% of the coupled light,<ref name=":0" /> most losses being due to [[Rayleigh scattering|scattering]] on the surface imperfections or impurities at the waist region.

If the fibre being tapered is uniformly pulled over a stationary heating source, the resulting SDF has an [[Exponential function|exponential]] radius profile.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=kenny|first1=R.P.|last2=Birks|first2=T.A.|last3=Oakley|first3=K.P.|date=1991|title=Control of optical fibre taper shape|url=https://doi.org/10.1049/el:19911034|journal=Electronics Letters|volume=27|issue=18|pages=1654|doi=10.1049/el:19911034|bibcode=1991ElL....27.1654K|issn=0013-5194))</ref> In many cases it is convenient to have a cylindrical waist region, that is the waist of a constant thickness. Fabrication of such a fibre requires continuous adjustments of the hotzone by moving the heating source,<ref name=":0" /> and the fabrication process becomes significantly longer.

==Handling==
Being extremely thin, an SDF is also extremely fragile. Therefore, an SDF is usually mounted onto a special frame immediately after pulling and is never detached from this frame. The common way of securing a fibre to the mount is by a polymer glue such as an [[Epoxy|epoxy resin]] or an [[UV curing|optical adhesive]].

[[Dust]], however, may attach to the surface of an SDF. If significant laser power is coupled into the fibre, the dust particles will [[Scattering|scatter]] light in the [[evanescent field]], heat up, and may thermally destroy the waist. In order to prevent this, SDFs are pulled and used in dust-free environments such as [[flowbox]]es or [[vacuum chamber]]s. For some applications, it is useful to immerse the freshly tapered SDF into [[purified water]] and thus protect the waist from contamination.

==Applications==
((expand section|date=September 2016))
Applications include sensors,<ref name="Nayak2007">((cite journal|first1=K. P.|last1=Nayak|first2=P. N.|last2=Melentiev|first3=M.|last3=Morinaga|first4=Fam|last4=Le Kien|first5=V. I.|last5=Balykin|first6=K.|last6=Hakuta|title=Optical nanofiber as an efficient tool for manipulating and probing atomic fluorescence|journal=Optics Express|volume=15|issue=9|pages=5431–5438|year=2007|doi=10.1364/OE.15.005431|bibcode=2007OExpr..15.5431N|pmid=19532797|url=https://zenodo.org/record/898770|doi-access=free))</ref> nonlinear optics, fibre couplers, atom trapping and guiding,<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Dawkins2011">((cite journal|last1=Dawkins|first1=S. T.|first2=R.|last2=Mitsch|first3=D.|last3=Reitz|first4=E.|last4=Vetsch|first5=A.|last5=Rauschenbeutel|title=Dispersive Optical Interface Based on Nanofiber-Trapped Atoms|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett.|year=2011|volume=107|issue=24|page=243601|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.243601|pmid=22242999|bibcode=2011PhRvL.107x3601D|arxiv=1108.2469 |s2cid=16246674))</ref><ref name="Goban2012">((cite journal|first1=A.|last1=Goban|first2=K. S.|last2=Choi|first3=D. J.|last3=Alton|first4=D.|last4=Ding|first5=C.|last5=Lacroûte|first6=M.|last6=Pototschnig|first7=T.|last7=Thiele|first8=N. P.|last8=Stern|first9=H. J.|last9=Kimble|title=Demonstration of a State-Insensitive, Compensated Nanofiber Trap|journal=Phys. Rev. Lett.|year=2012|volume=109|issue=3|page=033603|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.033603|pmid=22861848|bibcode=2012PhRvL.109c3603G|arxiv=1203.5108 |s2cid=10085166))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1=Nieddu|first1=Thomas|last2=Gokhroo|first2=Vandna|last3=Chormaic|first3=Síle Nic|date=2016-03-14|title=Optical nanofibres and neutral atoms|journal=Journal of Optics|language=en|volume=18|issue=5|pages=053001|doi=10.1088/2040-8978/18/5/053001|arxiv=1512.02753|bibcode=2016JOpt...18e3001N|issn=2040-8978|doi-access=free))</ref> quantum interface for quantum information processing,<ref name="Qi2016">See, for example, a theoretical analysis with applications to precise [[quantum nondemolition measurement]]((cite journal|title=Dispersive response of atoms trapped near the surface of an optical nanofiber with applications to quantum nondemolition measurement and spin squeezing|journal=Physical Review A|year=2016|last1=Qi|first1=Xiaodong|last2=Baragiola|first2=Ben Q.|last3=Jessen|first3=Poul S.|last4=Deutsch|first4=Ivan H.|volume=93|issue=2|page=023817|doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.93.023817|bibcode=2016PhRvA..93b3817Q|arxiv=1509.02625 |s2cid=17366761))</ref><ref>((Citation|last1=Solano|first1=Pablo|title=Chapter Seven - Optical Nanofibers: A New Platform for Quantum Optics|date=2017-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1049250X1730006X|journal=Advances in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics|volume=66|pages=439–505|editor-last=Arimondo|editor-first=Ennio|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/bs.aamop.2017.02.003|access-date=2020-10-15|last2=Grover|first2=Jeffrey A.|last3=Hoffman|first3=Jonathan E.|last4=Ravets|first4=Sylvain|last5=Fatemi|first5=Fredrik K.|last6=Orozco|first6=Luis A.|last7=Rolston|first7=Steven L.|arxiv=1703.10533|s2cid=17928674|editor2-last=Lin|editor2-first=Chun C.|editor3-last=Yelin|editor3-first=Susanne F.))</ref> all-optical switches,<ref name="LeKien2016">((cite journal|first1=Fam|last1=Le Kien|first2=A.|last2=Rauschenbeutel|title=Nanofiber-based all-optical switches|journal=Phys. Rev. A|volume=93|issue=1|page=013849|year=2016|doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.93.013849|bibcode=2016PhRvA..93a3849L|arxiv=1604.05782 |s2cid=119287411))</ref> optical manipulation of dielectric particles.<ref>((Cite journal|last1=Brambilla|first1=G.|last2=Murugan|first2=G. Senthil|last3=Wilkinson|first3=J. S.|last4=Richardson|first4=D. J.|date=2007-10-15|title=Optical manipulation of microspheres along a subwavelength optical wire|url=https://www.osapublishing.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-32-20-3041|journal=Optics Letters|language=EN|volume=32|issue=20|pages=3041–3043|doi=10.1364/OL.32.003041|pmid=17938693|bibcode=2007OptL...32.3041B|issn=1539-4794))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last1=Daly|first1=Mark|last2=Truong|first2=Viet Giang|last3=Chormaic|first3=Síle Nic|date=2016-06-27|title=Evanescent field trapping of nanoparticles using nanostructured ultrathin optical fibers|url=https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-24-13-14470|journal=Optics Express|language=EN|volume=24|issue=13|pages=14470–14482|doi=10.1364/OE.24.014470|pmid=27410600|issn=1094-4087|arxiv=1603.00170|bibcode=2016OExpr..2414470D|s2cid=19705546))</ref>

==See also==
* [[Double-clad fiber]]

==References==
((Reflist|35em))

[[Category:Optical fiber]]
[[Category:Photonics]]

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