Thought disorder
Other namesFormal thought disorder (FTD), thinking disorder
Textile art embroidered by a person diagnosed with schizophrenia, showing non-linear text with multiple colors of thread
Cloth embroidered by a person diagnosed with schizophrenia; non-linear text has multiple colors of thread
SpecialtyPsychiatry, clinical psychology

A thought disorder (TD) is a disturbance in cognition which affects language, thought and communication.[1][2] Psychiatric and psychological glossaries in 2015 and 2017 identified thought disorders as encompassing poverty of ideas, neologisms, paralogia (a reasoning disorder characterized by expression of illogical or delusional thoughts), word salad, and delusions - all disturbances of thought content and form. Two specific terms have been suggested — content thought disorder (CTD) and formal thought disorder (FTD). CTD has been defined as a thought disturbance characterized by multiple fragmented delusions, and the term thought disorder is often used to refer to an FTD:[3] a disruption of the form (or structure) of thought.[4] Also known as disorganized thinking, FTD results in disorganized speech and is recognized as a major feature of schizophrenia and other psychoses[5][6] (including mood disorders, dementia, mania, and neurological diseases).[7][5][8] Disorganized speech leads to an inference of disorganized thought.[9] Thought disorders include derailment,[10] pressured speech, poverty of speech, tangentiality, verbigeration, and thought blocking.[8] One of the first known cases of thought disorders, or specifically OCD as it is known today, was in 1691. John Moore, who was a bishop, had a speech in front of Queen Mary II, about "religious melancholy."[11]

Formal thought disorder affects the form (rather than of the content) of thought.[12] Unlike hallucinations and delusions, it is an observable, objective sign of psychosis.[12] FTD is a common core symptom of a psychotic disorder, and may be seen as a marker of severity and as an indicator of prognosis.[8][13] It reflects a cluster of cognitive, linguistic, and affective disturbances that have generated research interest in the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and psychiatry.[8]

Eugen Bleuler, who named schizophrenia, said that TD was its defining characteristic.[14] Disturbances of thinking and speech, such as clanging or echolalia, may also be present in Tourette syndrome;[15] other symptoms may be found in delirium.[16] A clinical difference exists between these two groups. Patients with psychoses are less likely to show awareness or concern about disordered thinking, and those with other disorders are aware and concerned about not being able to think clearly.[17]

Content thought disorder

Content thought disorder is a thought disturbance in which a person experiences multiple, fragmented delusions, typically a feature of schizophrenia and some other mental disorders which include obsessive-compulsive disorder and mania.[18][19] At the core of thought content disorder are abnormal beliefs and convictions (after taking the person's culture and background into consideration) ranging from overvalued ideas to fixed delusions.[20] These beliefs and delusions are typically non-specific diagnostically,[21] even if some delusions are more prevalent in one disorder than another.[22]

Neurotypical thought—consisting of awareness, concerns, beliefs, preoccupations, wishes, fantasies, imagination, and concepts—can be illogical, and can contain contradictory beliefs and prejudices or biases.[23][24] Individuals vary considerably, and a person's thinking may also shift from time to time.[25]

Content thought disorder is not limited to delusions. Other possible abnormalities include suicidal, violent, and homicidal ideas[26] and:[27][20]

In psychosis, delusions are the most common thought content disorder.[30] A delusion is a firm, fixed belief based on inadequate grounds, not amenable to rational argument or evidence to the contrary, which is out of sync with a person's regional, cultural, or educational background.[31] Delusions are common in people with mania, depression, schizoaffective disorder, delirium, dementia, substance use disorders, schizophrenia, and delusional disorders.[21] Common examples in a mental status examination include the following:[28]

Formal thought disorder

Formal thought disorder (FTD) is also known as disorganized speech. Evidence of disorganized thinking, it is a hallmark feature of schizophrenia.[4][6] FTD, a disorder of the form (rather than content) of thought, encompasses hallucinations and delusions[12] and is an observable sign of psychosis. A common, core symptom of psychosis, it may be seen as a marker of severity and a predictor of prognosis.[8][13] FTD reflects a cluster of cognitive, linguistic, and affective disturbances which has generated research interest from the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and psychiatry.[8]

It can be subdivided into clusters of positive and negative symptoms and objective (rather than subjective) symptoms.[13] On the scale of positive and negative symptoms, they have been grouped into positive formal thought disorder (posFTD) and negative formal thought disorder (negFTD).[13][12] Positive subtypes were pressure of speech, tangentiality, derailment, incoherence, and illogicality;[13] negative subtypes were poverty of speech and poverty of content.[12][13] The two groups were posited to be at either end of a spectrum of normal speech, but later studies showed them to be poorly correlated.[12] A comprehensive measure of FTD is the Thought and Language Disorder (TALD) Scale.[33] The Kiddie Formal Thought Disorder Rating Scale (K-FTDS) can be used to assess the presence of formal thought disorder in children and their childhood. Although it is very extensive and time consuming, its results are in great detail and reliable.[34]

Nancy Andreasen preferred to identify TDs as thought-language-communication disorders (TLC disorders).[35] Up to seven domains of FTD have been described on the Thought, Language, Communication (TLC) Scale, with most of the variance accounted for by two or three domains.[12] Some TLC disorders are more suggestive of severe disorder, and are listed with the first 11 items.[35]

Diagnoses

The DSM V categorizes FTD as "a psychotic symptom, manifested as bizarre speech and communication." FTD may include incoherence, peculiar words, disconnected ideas, or a lack of unprompted content expected from normal speech.[36] Clinical psychologists typically assess FTD by initiating an exploratory conversation with patients and observing the patient's verbal responses.[37]

FTD is often used to establish a diagnosis of schizophrenia; in cross-sectional studies, 27 to 80 percent of patients with schizophrenia present with FTD. A hallmark feature of schizophrenia, it is also widespread amongst other psychiatric disorders; up to 60 percent of those with schizoaffective disorder and 53 percent of those with clinical depression demonstrate FTD, suggesting that it is not exclusive to schizophrenia. About six percent of healthy subjects exhibit a mild form of FTD.[38]

The characteristics of FTD vary amongst disorders. A number of studies indicate that FTD in mania is marked by irrelevant intrusions and pronounced combinatory thinking, usually with a playfulness and flippancy absent from patients with schizophrenia.[39][40][41] The FTD present in patients with schizophrenia was characterized by disorganization, neologism, and fluid thinking, and confusion with word-finding difficulty.[41]

There is limited data on the longitudinal course of FTD.[42] The most comprehensive longitudinal study of FTD by 2023 found a distinction in the longitudinal course of thought-disorder symptoms between schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. The study also found an association between pre-index assessments[clarification needed] of social, work and educational functioning and the longitudinal course of FTD.[43]

Possible causes

Several theories have been developed to explain the causes of formal thought disorder. It has been proposed that FTD relates to neurocognition via semantic memory.[44] Semantic network impairment in people with schizophrenia—measured by the difference between fluency (e.g. the number of animals' names produced in 60 seconds) and phonological fluency (e.g. the number of words beginning with "F" produced in 60 seconds)—predicts the severity of formal thought disorder, suggesting that verbal information (through semantic priming) is unavailable.[44] Other hypotheses include working memory deficit (being confused about what has already been said in a conversation) and attentional focus.[44]

FTD in schizophrenia has been found to be associated with structural and functional abnormalities in the language network, where structural studies have found bilateral grey matter deficits; deficits in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral inferior parietal lobule and bilateral superior temporal gyrus are FTD correlates.[38] Other studies did not find an association between FTD and structural aberrations of the language network, however, and regions not included in the language network have been associated with FTD.[38] Future research is needed to clarify whether there is an association with FTD in schizophrenia and neural abnormalities in the language network.[38]

Transmitter systems which might cause FTD have also been investigated. Studies have found that glutamate dysfunction, due to a rarefaction of glutamatergic synapses in the superior temporal gyrus in patients with schizophrenia, is a major cause of positive FTD.[38]

The heritability of FTD has been demonstrated in a number of family and twin studies. Imaging genetics studies, using a semantic verbal-fluency task performed by the participants during functional MRI scanning, revealed that alleles linked to glutamatergic transmission contribute to functional aberrations in typical language-related brain areas.[38] FTD is not solely genetically determined, however; environmental influences, such as allusive thinking in parents during childhood, and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia (including childhood abuse, migration, social isolation, and cannabis use) also contribute to the pathophysiology of FTD.[45]

The origins of FTD have been theorised from a social-learning perspective. Singer and Wynne said that familial communication patterns play a key role in shaping the development of FTD; dysfunctional social interactions undermine a child's development of cohesive, stable mental representations of the world, increasing their risk of developing FTD.[46]

Treatments

Antipsychotic medication is often used to treat FTD. Although the vast majority of studies of the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment do not report effects on syndromes or symptoms, six older studies report the effects of antipsychotic treatment on FTD.[47][48][49][50][51][52] These studies and clinical experience indicate that antipsychotics are often an effective treatment for patients with positive or negative FTD, but not all patients respond to them.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is another treatment for FTD, but its effectiveness has not been well-studied.[38] Large randomised controlled trials evaluating the effectiveness of CBT for treating psychosis often exclude individuals with severe FTD because it reduces the therapeutic alliance required by the therapy.[53] However, provisional evidence suggests that FTD may not preclude the effectiveness of CBT.[53] Kircher and colleagues have suggested that the following methods should be used in CBT for patients with FTD:[38]

Signs and symptoms

Language abnormalities exist in the general population, and do not necessarily indicate a condition.[54] They can occur in schizophrenia and other disorders (such as mania or depression), or in anyone who may be tired or stressed.[1][55] To distinguish thought disorder, patterns of speech, severity of symptoms, their frequency, and any resulting functional impairment can be considered.[35]

Symptoms of TD include derailment,[10] pressured speech, poverty of speech, tangentiality, and thought blocking.[8] FTD is a hallmark feature of schizophrenia, but is also associated with other conditions (including mood disorders, dementia, mania, and neurological diseases).[4][7][55] Impaired attention, poor memory, and difficulty formulating abstract concepts may also reflect TD, and can be observed and assessed with mental-status tests such as serial sevens or memory tests.[30]

Types

Thirty symptoms (or features) of TD have been described, including:[56][12]

Terminology

Psychiatric and psychological glossaries in 2015 and 2017 defined thought disorder' as disturbed thinking or cognition which affects communication, language, or thought content including poverty of ideas, neologisms, paralogia, word salad, and delusions[7][19] (disturbances of thought content and form), and suggested the more-specific terms content thought disorder (CTD) and formal thought disorder (FTD).[2] CTD was defined as a TD characterized by multiple fragmented delusions,[18][19] and FTD was defined as a disturbance in the form or structure of thinking.[87][88] The 2013 DSM-5 only used the term FTD, primarily as a synonym for disorganized thinking and speech.[89] This contrasts with the 1992 ICD-10 (which only used the word "thought disorder", always accompanied with "delusion" and "hallucination")[90] and a 2002 medical dictionary which generally defined thought disorders similarly to the psychiatric glossaries[91] and used the word in other entries as the ICD-10 did.[92]

A 2017 psychiatric text describing thought disorder as a "disorganization syndrome" in the context of schizophrenia:

"Thought disorder" here refers to disorganization of the form of thought and not content. An older use of the term "thought disorder" included the phenomena of delusions and sometimes hallucinations, but this is confusing and ignores the clear differences in the relationships between symptoms that have become apparent over the past 30 years. Delusions and hallucinations should be identified as psychotic symptoms, and thought disorder should be taken to mean formal thought disorders or a disorder of verbal cognition.

— Phenomenology of Schizophrenia (2017), THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA[83]

The text said that some clinicians use the term "formal thought disorder" broadly, referring to abnormalities in thought form with psychotic cognitive signs or symptoms,[93] and studies of cognition and subsyndromes in schizophrenia may refer to FTD as conceptual disorganization or disorganization factor.[83]

Some disagree:

Unfortunately, "thought disorder" is often involved rather loosely to refer to both FTD and delusional content. For the sake of clarity, the unqualified use of the phrase "thought disorder" should be discarded from psychiatric communication. Even the designation "formal thought disorder" covers too wide a territory. It should always be made clear whether one is referring to derailment or loose associations, flight of ideas, or circumstantiality.

— The Mental Status Examination, The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (2016)[94]

Course, diagnosis, and prognosis

It was believed that TD occurred only in schizophrenia, but later findings indicate that it may occur in other psychiatric conditions (including mania) and in people without mental illness.[95] Not all people with schizophrenia have a TD; the condition is not specific to the disease.[96]

When defining thought-disorder subtypes and classifying them as positive or negative symptoms, Nancy Andreasen found[96] that different subtypes of TD occur at different frequencies in those with mania, depression, and schizophrenia. People with mania have pressured speech as the most prominent symptom, and have rates of derailment, tangentiality, and incoherence as prominent as in those with schizophrenia. They are likelier to have pressured speech, distractibility, and circumstantiality.[96][97]

People with schizophrenia have more negative TD, including poverty of speech and poverty of content of speech, but also have relatively high rates of some positive TD.[96] Derailment, loss of goal, poverty of content of speech, tangentiality and illogicality are particularly characteristic of schizophrenia.[98] People with depression have relatively-fewer TDs; the most prominent are poverty of speech, poverty of content of speech, and circumstantiality. Andreasen noted the diagnostic usefulness of dividing the symptoms into subtypes; negative TDs without full affective symptoms suggest schizophrenia.[96][97]

She also cited the prognostic value of negative-positive-symptom divisions. In manic patients, most TDs resolve six months after evaluation; this suggests that TDs in mania, although as severe as in schizophrenia, tend to improve.[96] In people with schizophrenia, however, negative TDs remain after six months and sometimes worsen; positive TDs somewhat improve. A negative TD is a good predictor of some outcomes; patients with prominent negative TDs are worse in social functioning six months later.[96] More prominent negative symptoms generally suggest a worse outcome; however, some people may do well, respond to medication, and have normal brain function. Positive symptoms vary similarly.[99]

A prominent TD at illness onset suggests a worse prognosis, including:[83]

TD which is unresponsive to treatment predicts a worse illness course.[83] In schizophrenia, TD severity tends to be more stable than hallucinations and delusions. Prominent TDs are more unlikely to diminish in middle age, compared with positive symptoms.[83] Less-severe TD may occur during the prodromal and residual periods of schizophrenia.[100] Treatment for thought disorder may include psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), and psychotropic medications.[101]

The DSM-5 includes delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought process (formal thought disorder), and disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia) as key symptoms of psychosis.[6] Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders such as schizoaffective disorder and schizophreniform disorder typically consist of prominent hallucinations, delusions and FTD; the latter presents as severely disorganized, bizarre, and catatonic behavior.[4][6] Psychotic disorders due to medical conditions and substance use typically consist of delusions and hallucinations.[6][102] The rarer delusional disorder and shared psychotic disorder typically present with persistent delusions.[102] FTDs are commonly found in schizophrenia and mood disorders, with poverty of speech content more common in schizophrenia.[103]

Psychoses such as schizophrenia and bipolar mania are distinguishable from malingering, when an individual fakes illness for other gains, by clinical presentations; malingerers feign thought content with no irregularities in form such as derailment or looseness of association.[104] Negative symptoms, including alogia, may be absent, and chronic thought disorder is typically distressing.[104]

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) whose diagnosis requires the onset of symptoms before three years of age can be distinguished from early-onset schizophrenia; schizophrenia under age 10 is extremely rare, and ASD patients do not display FTDs.[105] However, it has been suggested that individuals with ASD display language disturbances like those found in schizophrenia; a 2008 study found that children and adolescents with ASD showed significantly more illogical thinking and loose associations than control subjects.[106] The illogical thinking was related to cognitive functioning and executive control; the loose associations were related to communication symptoms and parent reports of stress and anxiety.[106]

Rorschach tests have been useful for assessing TD in disturbed patients.[107][1] A series of inkblots are shown, and patient responses are analyzed to determine disturbances of thought.[1] The nature of the assessment offers insight into the cognitive processes of another, and how they respond to equivocal stimuli.[108] Hermann Rorschach developed this test to diagnose schizophrenia after realizing that people with schizophrenia gave drastically different interpretations of Klecksographie inkblots from others whose thought processes were considered normal,[109] and it has become one of the most widely-used assessment tools for diagnosing TDs.[1]

The Thought Disorder Index (TDI), also known as the Delta Index, was developed to help further determine the severity of TD in verbal responses.[1] TDI scores are primarily derived from verbally-expressed interpretations of the Rorschach test, but TDI can also be used with other verbal samples (including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale).[1] TDI has a twenty-three-category scoring index; each category scores the level of severity on a scale from 0–1, with .25 being mild and 1.00 being most severe (.25, .50, .75, 1.00).[1]

Criticism

TD has been criticized as being based on circular or incoherent definitions.[110][need quotation to verify] Symptoms of TD are inferred from disordered speech, based on the assumption that disordered speech arises from disordered thought. Although TD is typically associated with psychosis, similar phenomena can appear in different disorders and leading to misdiagnosis.[111]

A criticism related to the separation of symptoms of schizophrenia into negative or positive symptoms, including TD, is that it oversimplifies the complexity of TD and its relationship to other positive symptoms.[112] Factor analysis has found that negative symptoms tend to correlate with one another, but positive symptoms tend to separate into two groups.[112] The three clusters became known as negative symptoms, psychotic symptoms, and disorganization symptoms.[99] Alogia, a TD traditionally classified as a negative symptom, can be separated into two types: poverty of speech content as (a disorganization symptom) and poverty of speech, response latency, and thought blocking (negative symptoms).[113] Positive-negative-symptom diametrics, however, may enable a more accurate characterization of schizophrenia.[114]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Hart M, Lewine RR (May 2017). "Rethinking Thought Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 43 (3): 514–522. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx003. PMC 5464106. PMID 28204762.
  2. ^ a b "Thought disorder". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  3. ^ "Thought Disorder - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d "Formal thought disorder". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  5. ^ a b "Disorganized speech". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  6. ^ a b c d e Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5 (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. p. 88. ISBN 9780890425541.
  7. ^ a b c Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (2017), Appendix B: Glossary of Psychiatry and Psychology Terms. "thought disorder Any disturbance of thinking that affects language, communication, or thought content; the hallmark feature of schizophrenia. Manifestations range from simple blocking and mild circumstantiality to profound loosening of associations, incoherence, and delusions; characterized by a failure to follow semantic and syntactic rules that is inconsistent with the person's education, intelligence, or cultural background."
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Roche E, Creed L, MacMahon D, Brennan D, Clarke M (July 2015). "The Epidemiology and Associated Phenomenology of Formal Thought Disorder: A Systematic Review". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 41 (4): 951–62. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu129. PMC 4466171. PMID 25180313.
  9. ^ Roche, E.; Creed, L.; MacMahon, D.; Brennan, D.; Clarke, M. (2015). "The Epidemiology and Associated Phenomenology of Formal Thought Disorder: A Systematic Review". Schizophrenia Bulletin. pp. 951–962. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu129. PMC 4466171. PMID 25180313. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  10. ^ a b "Derailment". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  11. ^ "The history of OCD | OCD-UK". Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Kircher T, Bröhl H, Meier F, Engelen J (June 2018). "Formal thought disorders: from phenomenology to neurobiology". The Lancet. Psychiatry. 5 (6): 515–526. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30059-2. PMID 29678679. S2CID 5036067.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Bora E, Yalincetin B, Akdede BB, Alptekin K (July 2019). "Neurocognitive and linguistic correlates of positive and negative formal thought disorder: A meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Research. 209: 2–11. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2019.05.025. PMID 31153670. S2CID 167221363.
  14. ^ Colman, A. M. (2001) Oxford Dictionary of Psychology, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860761-X
  15. ^ Barrera A, McKenna PJ, Berrios GE (2009). "Formal thought disorder, neuropsychology and insight in schizophrenia". Psychopathology. 42 (4): 264–9. doi:10.1159/000224150. PMID 19521143. S2CID 26079338.
  16. ^ Noble J, Greene HL (15 January 1996). Textbook of primary care medicine. Mosby. p. 1325. ISBN 978-0-8016-7841-7.
  17. ^ Jefferson JW, Moore DS (2004). Handbook of medical psychiatry. Elsevier Mosby. p. 131. ISBN 0-323-02911-6.
  18. ^ a b Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (2017), "Appendix B: Glossary of Psychiatry and Psychology Terms" "content thought disorder Disturbance in thinking in which a person exhibits delusions that may be multiple, fragmented, and bizarre."
  19. ^ a b c "Content-thought disorder". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  20. ^ a b Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "Chapter 1 Psychiatric History and Mental Status Examination", MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION, Thought Disorder, Thought Content., p. 7.
  21. ^ a b Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Thought Content, Disturbances in Thought Contents.
  22. ^ Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Thought Content, Delusions.
  23. ^ Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Thought Content.
  24. ^ Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Types of Thinking.
  25. ^ Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Normal Thinking.
  26. ^ Psychiatric Interview, History, and Mental Status Examination of the Adult Patient (2017), HISTORY AND EXAMINATION, Risk Assessment "Suicidal, violent, and homicidal ideation fall under the category of thought content ..."
  27. ^ Houghtalen RP, Mcintyre JS (2017). "7.1 Psychiatric Interview, History, and Mental Status Examination of the Adult Patient". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. Table 7.1-5. Elements of the Mental Status Examination with Examples of Abnormal Findings. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1. Thought content: obsession, delusion, magical thinking, overvalued ideas, ideas of reference or influence, persecutory ideas.
  28. ^ a b Sadock BJ (2017). "7.2 Outline for a Psychiatric Examination". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. MENTAL STATUS, Table 7.2–1. Common Questions for the Psychiatric History and Mental Status. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1. Thought content: Delusions— persecutory (paranoid), grandiose, infidelity, somatic, sensory, thought broadcasting, thought insertion, ideas of reference, ideas of unreality, phobias, obsessions, compulsions, ambivalence, autism, dereism, blocking, suicidal or homicidal preoccupation, conflicts, nihilistic ideas, hypochondriasis, depersonalization, derealization, flight of ideas, idé fixe, magical thinking, neologisms.
  29. ^ a b Akiskal HS (2016). "1 The Mental Status Examination". In Fatemi SH, Clayton PJ (eds.). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (4th ed.). New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 1.5.5. Speech and Thought., pp. 8–10. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5. ISBN 978-1-4939-2528-5.
    • "This form of thought is most characteristic of mania and tends to be overinclusive, with difficulty in excluding irrelevant, extraneous details from the association."
  30. ^ a b Thought Disorder (2016), 25.2. Definition., pp. 497–498. cited Fish FJ (1962). Schizophrenia. Bristol, England: Bright.
  31. ^ a b Psychiatric Interview, History, and Mental Status Examination of the Adult Patient (2017), HISTORY AND EXAMINATION, Thought Content & Table 7.1–7. Examples of Delusional Thought
  32. ^ Fatemi SH, Folsom TD (2016). "6 Schizophrenia". In Fatemi SH, Clayton PJ (eds.). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (4th ed.). New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 6.6. Clinical Findings, 6.6.2. Mental Status Examination in a Subject with Schizophrenia, 6.6.2.5. Thought Form and Content, p. 103. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5. ISBN 978-1-4939-2528-5.
  33. ^ Kircher T, Krug A, Stratmann M, Ghazi S, Schales C, Frauenheim M, et al. (December 2014). "A rating scale for the assessment of objective and subjective formal Thought and Language Disorder (TALD)". Schizophrenia Research. 160 (1–3): 216–21. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.024. hdl:10576/4730. PMID 25458572.
  34. ^ de Bruin, Esther I.; Verheij, Fop; Wiegman, Tamar; Ferdinand, Robert F. (January 2007). "Assessment of formal thought disorder: The relation between the Kiddie Formal Thought Disorder Rating Scale and clinical judgment". Psychiatry Research. 149 (1–3): 239–246. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.01.018. PMID 17156854. S2CID 9729730.
  35. ^ a b c Andreasen NC (November 1979). "Thought, language, and communication disorders. I. Clinical assessment, definition of terms, and evaluation of their reliability". Archives of General Psychiatry. 36 (12): 1315–21. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780120045006. PMID 496551.
  36. ^ Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5 (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 9780890425558.
  37. ^ "Thought Disorder | Johns Hopkins Psychiatry Guide". www.hopkinsguides.com.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g h Kircher, Tilo; Bröhl, Henrike; Meier, Felicitas; Engelen, Jennifer (1 June 2018). "Formal thought disorders: from phenomenology to neurobiology". The Lancet Psychiatry. 5 (6): 515–526. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30059-2. PMID 29678679. S2CID 5036067.
  39. ^ Holzman, Philip S.; Shenton, Martha E.; Solovay, Margie R. (1 January 1986). "Quality of Thought Disorder in Differential Diagnosis". Schizophrenia Bulletin. pp. 360–372. doi:10.1093/schbul/12.3.360. PMID 3764357.
  40. ^ Nestor, Paul G.; Shenton, Martha E.; Wible, Cindy; Hokama, Hiroto; O'Donnell, Brian F.; Law, Susan; McCarley, Robert W. (9 February 1998). "A neuropsychological analysis of schizophrenic thought disorder". Schizophrenia Research. 29 (3): 217–225. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(97)00101-1. PMID 9516662. S2CID 9040191.
  41. ^ a b Solovay, Margie R.; Shenton, Martha E.; Holzman, Philip S. (1 January 1987). "Comparative Studies of Thought Disorders: I. Mania and Schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry. 44 (1): 13–20. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800130015003. PMID 3800579.
  42. ^ Yalincetin, Berna; Bora, Emre; Binbay, Tolga; Ulas, Halis; Akdede, Berna Binnur; Alptekin, Koksal (July 2017). "Formal thought disorder in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Research. 185: 2–8. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.12.015. PMID 28017494. S2CID 205076099.
  43. ^ Marengo, Joanne T.; Harrow, Martin (1 January 1997). "Longitudinal Courses of Thought Disorder in Schizophrenia and Schizoaffective Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin. pp. 273–285. doi:10.1093/schbul/23.2.273. PMID 9165637.
  44. ^ a b c Harvey PD, Keefe RS, Eesley CE (2017). "12.10 Neurocognition in Schizophrenia". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. RELATIONSHIP OF NEUROCOGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT TO SCHIZOPHRENIA SYMPTOMS, Formal Thought Disorder. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  45. ^ de Sousa, Paulo; Spray, Amy; Sellwood, William; Bentall, Richard P. (15 December 2015). "'No man is an island'. Testing the specific role of social isolation in formal thought disorder". Psychiatry Research. 230 (2): 304–313. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.09.010. PMID 26384574. S2CID 19166732.
  46. ^ Singer, M. T.; Wynne, L. C. (February 1965). "Thought Disorder and Family Relations of Schizophrenics". Archives of General Psychiatry. 12 (2): 201–212. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01720320089010. PMID 14237630.
  47. ^ Cuesta, M. J.; Peralta, V.; de Leon, J. (January 1994). "Schizophrenic syndromes associated with treatment response". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 18 (1): 87–99. doi:10.1016/0278-5846(94)90026-4. PMID 7906897. S2CID 27738445.
  48. ^ Wang, Xiaohong; Savage, Robert; Borisov, Andrey; Rosenberg, Jill; Woolwine, Bobbi; Tucker, Melanie; May, Roberta; Feldman, Jacqueline; Nemeroff, Charles B.; Miller, Andrew H. (October 2006). "Efficacy of risperidone versus olanzapine in patients with schizophrenia previously on chronic conventional antipsychotic therapy: a switch study". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 40 (7): 669–676. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.03.008. PMID 16762371.
  49. ^ Remberk, Barbara; Namysłowska, Irena; Rybakowski, Filip (3 December 2012). "Cognition and communication dysfunctions in early-onset schizophrenia: effect of risperidone". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 39 (2): 348–354. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.07.007. PMID 22819848. S2CID 207410186.
  50. ^ "APA PsycNet". psycnet.apa.org.
  51. ^ Hurt, S. W.; Holzman, P. S.; Davis, J. M. (December 1983). "Thought disorder. The measurement of its changes". Archives of General Psychiatry. 40 (12): 1281–1285. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790110023005. PMID 6139992.
  52. ^ Spohn, H. E.; Coyne, L.; Larson, J.; Mittleman, F.; Spray, J.; Hayes, K. (1986). "Episodic and residual thought pathology in chronic schizophrenics: effect of neuroleptics". Schizophrenia Bulletin. pp. 394–407. doi:10.1093/schbul/12.3.394. PMID 2876514.
  53. ^ a b Palmier-Claus, Jasper; Griffiths, Robert; Murphy, Elizabeth; Parker, Sophie; Longden, Eleanor; Bowe, Samantha; Steele, Ann; French, Paul; Morrison, Anthony; Tai, Sara (2 October 2017). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for thought disorder in psychosis". Psychosis. 9 (4): 347–357. doi:10.1080/17522439.2017.1363276. S2CID 149368351.
  54. ^ Çokal, Derya; Sevilla, Gabriel; Jones, William Stephen; Zimmerer, Vitor; Deamer, Felicity; Douglas, Maggie; Spencer, Helen; Turkington, Douglas; Ferrier, Nicol; Varley, Rosemary; Watson, Stuart (19 September 2018). "The language profile of formal thought disorder". npj Schizophrenia. 4 (1): 18. doi:10.1038/s41537-018-0061-9. ISSN 2334-265X. PMC 6145886. PMID 30232371.
  55. ^ a b Thought Disorder (2016), 25.3. What Are the Boundaries of Thought Disorder?., pp. 498–499.
  56. ^ Thought Disorder (2016), 25.4. What Are the Common Types of Thought Disorder?, pp. 498–499.
  57. ^ Phenomenology of Schizophrenia (2017), THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA, Categories of Negative Symptoms.
    • "... In this way, alogia is conceived of as a 'negative thought disorder.' ..."
    • "... The paucity of meaningful content in the presence of a normal amount of speech that is sometimes included in alogia is actually a disorganization of thought and not a negative symptom and is properly included in the disorganization cluster of symptoms. ..."
  58. ^ Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "6 Psychiatric Rating Scales", Table 6–5 Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), p. 44.
  59. ^ "Blocking". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  60. ^ a b c d e Houghtalen, Rory P; McIntyre, John S (2017). "7.1 Psychiatric Interview, History, and Mental Status Examination of the Adult Patient". In Sadock, Virginia A; Sadock, Benjamin J; Ruiz, Pedro (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. HISTORY AND EXAMINATION, Thought Process/Form, Table 7.1–6. Examples of Disordered Thought Process/Form. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1. indicates and briefly defines the follow types: Clanging, Circumstantial, Derailment (loose associations), Flight of ideas, Incoherence (word salad), Neologism, Tangential, Thought blocking
  61. ^ Videbeck S (2017). "8. Assessment". Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. CONTENT OF THE ASSESSMENT, Thought Process and Content, p. 232. ISBN 9781496355911.
  62. ^ Videbeck (2017), Chapter 16 Schizophrenia, APPLICATION OF THE NURSING PROCESS, Thought Process and Content, p. 446.
  63. ^ a b c d e f g Videbeck, S (2008). Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwers Health, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
  64. ^ "Thought disorder" (PDF). Retrieved 26 February 2020.
  65. ^ APA dictionary of psychology (2015), p. 299 "derailment n. a symptom of thought disorder, often occurring in individuals with schizophrenia, marked by frequent interruptions in thought and jumping from one idea to another unrelated or indirectly related idea. It is usually manifested in speech (speech derailment) but can also be observed in writing. Derailment is essentially equivalent to loosening of associations. See cognitive derailment; thought derailment."
  66. ^ a b Thought Disorder (2016), 25.4.2.8. Distractible Speech, p. 502.
  67. ^ "Distractible speech". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  68. ^ a b c d e Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "10 Schizophrenia", CLINICAL FEATURES, Thought, pp. 168–169.
    • "Form of Thought. Disorders of the form of thought are objectively observable in patients' spoken and written language. The disorders include looseness of associations, derailment, incoherence, tangentiality, circumstantiality, neologisms, echolalia, verbigeration, word salad, and mutism."
    • "Thought Process. ... Disorders of thought process include flight of ideas, thought blocking, impaired attention, poverty of thought content, poor abstraction abilities, perseveration, idiosyncratic associations (e.g., identical predicates and clang associations), overinclusion, and circumstantiality."
  69. ^ Ganos, Christos; Ogrzal, Timo; Schnitzler, Alfons; Münchau, Alexander (1 September 2012). "The pathophysiology of echopraxia/echolalia: Relevance to Gilles De La Tourette syndrome". Movement Disorders. 27 (10): 1222–1229. doi:10.1002/mds.25103. PMID 22807284. S2CID 22422642.
  70. ^ Fred R. Volkmar; et al. (2005). Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Vol. 1: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology, and behavior (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-93934-5. OCLC 60394857.
  71. ^ Duffy, Joseph R. (2013). Motor speech disorders: substrates, differential diagnosis, and management (Third ed.). St. Louis, MI. ISBN 978-0-323-07200-7. OCLC 819941855.((cite book)): CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  72. ^ "Evasion". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  73. ^ Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (2017), Appendix B Glossary of Psychiatry and Psychology Terms. "evasion ... consists of suppressing an idea that is next in a thought series and replacing it with another idea closely related to it. Also called paralogia; perverted logic."
  74. ^ Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "Chapter 6 Psychiatric Rating Scales", OTHER SCALES, Table 6–6 Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), Positive formal thought disorder, p. 45 includes and defines Derailment, Tangentiality, Incoherence, Illogicality, Circumstantiality, Pressure of speech, Distractible speech, Clanging.
  75. ^ Thought Disorder (2016), 25.4.2.6. Neologisms, p. 502.
  76. ^ Rohrer JD, Rossor MN, Warren JD (February 2009). "Neologistic jargon aphasia and agraphia in primary progressive aphasia". Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 277 (1–2): 155–9. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2008.10.014. PMC 2633035. PMID 19033077.
  77. ^ Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "Chapter 4 Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry", GLOSSARY OF SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS, p. 29
  78. ^ APA dictionary of psychology (2015), p. 751 overinclusion n. failure of an individual to eliminate ineffective or inappropriate responses associated with a particular stimulus.
  79. ^ Kurowski, Kathleen; Blumstein, Sheila E. (February 2016). "Phonetic Basis of Phonemic Paraphasias in Aphasia: Evidence for Cascading Activation". Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 75: 193–203. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.12.005. ISSN 0010-9452. PMC 4754157. PMID 26808838.
  80. ^ "Pressured speech". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  81. ^ Cicero, David C.; Kerns, John G. (1 April 2011). "Unpleasant and Pleasant Referential Thinking: Relations with Self- Processing, Paranoia, and Other Schizotypal Traits". Journal of Research in Personality. 45 (2): 208–218. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.002. ISSN 0092-6566. PMC 4447705. PMID 26028792.
  82. ^ Buckingham, H. W.; Rekart, D. M. (May 1979). "Semantic paraphasia". Journal of Communication Disorders. 12 (3): 197–209. doi:10.1016/0021-9924(79)90041-8. ISSN 0021-9924. PMID 438359.
  83. ^ a b c d e f Lewis SF, Escalona R, Keith SJ (2017). "12.2 Phenomenology of Schizophrenia". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA, Disorganization, Thought Disorder. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
    • As quoted in the templated quote.
    • "Thought disorder is the most studied form of the disorganization symptoms. It is referred to as "formal thought disorder," or "conceptual disorganization," or as the "disorganization factor" in various studies that examine cognition or subsyndromes in schizophrenia. ..."
  84. ^ "Tangential speech". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  85. ^ a b Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders (2017), THINKING DISTURBANCES, Continuity. "Word salad describes the stringing together of words that seem to have no logical association, and verbigeration describes the disappearance of understandable speech, replaced by strings of incoherent utterances."
  86. ^ Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry (2008), "Chapter 4 Signs and Symptoms in Psychiatry", GLOSSARY OF SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS, p. 32
  87. ^ Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (2017), "Appendix B: Glossary of Psychiatry and Psychology Terms" "formal thought disorder Disturbance in the form of thought rather than the content of thought; thinking characterized by loosened associations, neologisms, and illogical constructs; thought process is disordered, and the person is defined as psychotic. Characteristic of schizophrenia."
  88. ^ APA dictionary of psychology (2015), p. 432 "formal thought disorder disruptions in the form or structure of thinking. Examples include derailment and tangentiality. It is distinct from TD, in which the disturbance relates to thought content."
  89. ^ American Psychiatry Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
    • As the proper FTD: "Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders", Key Features That Define the Psychotic Disorders, Disorganized Thinking (Speech), p. 88 "Disorganized thinking (formal thought disorder) is typically inferred from the individual's speech. ..."
    • As possibly something else: "Dissociative Disorders", Differential Diagnosis, Psychotic disorders, p. 296 "... Dissociative experiences of identity fragmentation or possession, and of perceived loss of control over thoughts, feelings, impulses, and acts, may be confused with signs of formal thought disorder, such as thought insertion or withdrawal. ..."
  90. ^ "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines (CDDG)" (PDF). World Health Organization. 1992. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2004.
    • F06.2 Organic delusional [schizophrenia-like] disorder, p.59: Features suggestive of schizophrenia, such as bizarre delusions, hallucinations, or thought disorder, may also be present. ... Diagnostic guidelines ... Hallucinations, thought disorder, or isolated catatonic phenomena may be present. ...
    • F20.0 Paranoid schizophrenia, p. 80: ... Thought disorder may be obvious in acute states, but if so it does not prevent the typical delusions or hallucinations from being described clearly. ...
    • F20.1 Hebephrenic schizophrenia, p. 81: ... In addition, disturbances of affect and volition, and thought disorder are usually prominent. Hallucinations and delusions may be present but are not usually prominent. ...
  91. ^ The British Medical Association Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Dorling Kindersley. 2002. p. 547. ISBN 0-7513-3383-2. thought disorders Abnormalities in the structure or content of thought, as reflected in a person's speech, writing, or behaviour. ...
  92. ^ The BMA Illustrated Medical Dictionary (2002)
    • p. 470 psychosis: ... Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders, loss of affect, mania, and depression. ...
    • p. 499-500 schizophrenia: ... The main symptoms are various forms of delusions such as those of persecution (which are typical of paranoid schizophrenia); hallucinations, which are usually auditory (hearing voices), but which may also be visual or tactile; and thought disorder, leading to impaired concentration and thought processes. ...
  93. ^ Matorin AA, Shah AA, Ruiz P (2017). "8 Clinical Manifestations of Psychiatric Disorders". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. THINKING DISTURBANCES, Flow and Form Disturbances. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1. Although formal thought disorder typically refers to marked abnormalities in the form and flow or connectivity of thought, some clinicians use the term broadly to include any psychotic cognitive sign or symptom.
  94. ^ The Mental Status Examination (2016), 1.6.2. Disturbances in Thinking., pp. 14–15.
  95. ^ Wensing, T.; Cieslik, E. C.; Müller, V. I.; Hoffstaedter, F.; Eickhoff, S. B.; Nickl-Jockschat, T. (2017). "Neural correlates of formal thought disorder: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis". Human Brain Mapping. 38 (10): 4946–4965. doi:10.1002/hbm.23706. PMC 5685170. PMID 28653797.
  96. ^ a b c d e f g Thought Disorder (2016), 25.5. Diagnostic and Prognostic Significance of Thought Disorder, pp. 502–503. cited
    • Andreasen NC (November 1979). "Thought, language, and communication disorders. I. Clinical assessment, definition of terms, and evaluation of their reliability". Archives of General Psychiatry. 36 (12): 1315–21. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780120045006. PMID 496551.
    • Andreasen NC (November 1979). "Thought, language, and communication disorders. II. Diagnostic significance". Archives of General Psychiatry. 36 (12): 1325–30. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780120055007. PMID 496552.
    • Andreasen NC, Hoffrnann RE, Grove WM (1984). Alpert M (ed.). Mapping abnormalities in language and cognition. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 199–226. ((cite book)): |work= ignored (help)
  97. ^ a b Coryell W, Clayton PJ (2016). "4 Bipolar Illness". In Fatemi SH, Clayton PJ (eds.). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (4th ed.). New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 4.7. Clinical Picture, 4.7.2. Symptoms, p. 59. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5. ISBN 978-1-4939-2528-5.
  98. ^ Oyebode F (2015). "10 Disorder of Speech and Language". Sims' Symptoms in the Mind: Textbook of Descriptive Psychopathology (5th ed.). Saunders Elsevier. Schizophrenic Language Disorder, CLINICAL DESCRIPTION AND THOUGHT DISORDER, p. 167. ISBN 978-0-7020-5556-0.
  99. ^ a b Thought Disorder (2016), 25.6. Relationship Between Thought Disorders and Other Symptoms of Schizophrenia., pp. 503–504.
  100. ^ DSM-5 (2013), Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders, Key Features That Define the Psychotic Disorders, Disorganized Thinking (Speech), p. 88.
  101. ^ "Thought Disorder | Johns Hopkins Psychiatry Guide". www.hopkinsguides.com. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  102. ^ a b Ivleva EI, Tamminga CA (2017). "12.16 Psychosis as a Defining Dimension in Schizophrenia". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. DSM-5: AN UPDATED DEFINITION OF PSYCHOSIS. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  103. ^ Akiskal HS (2017). "13.4 Mood Disorders: Clinical Features". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. BIPOLAR DISORDERS, Bipolar I Disorder, Acute Mania. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  104. ^ a b Ninivaggi FJ (2017). "28.1 Malingering". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS OF MALINGERING, Psychological Symptomatology: Clinical Presentations, Psychosis. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  105. ^ Sikich L, Chandrasekhar T (2017). "53 Early-Onset Psychotic Disorders". In Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P (eds.). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS, Autism Spectrum Disorders. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  106. ^ a b Solomon M, Ozonoff S, Carter C, Caplan R (September 2008). "Formal thought disorder and the autism spectrum: relationship with symptoms, executive control, and anxiety". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 38 (8): 1474–84. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0526-6. PMC 5519298. PMID 18297385.
  107. ^ Hart, Mara; Lewine, Richard R. J. (May 2017). "Rethinking Thought Disorder". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 43 (3): 514–522. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx003. ISSN 0586-7614. PMC 5464106. PMID 28204762.
  108. ^ "Rapaport, D. Diagnostic psychological testing. Chicago: Year Book Publishers, 1945, 1946, pp. 1089, two volumes. $13.00 (both vols.)". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2 (3): 301–302. 1946. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(194607)2:3<301::AID-JCLP2270020320>3.0.CO;2-X. ISSN 1097-4679.
  109. ^ "What's behind the Rorschach inkblot test?". BBC News. 24 July 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  110. ^ Bentall, R. (2003) Madness explained: Psychosis and Human Nature. London: Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-7139-9249-2
  111. ^ Tufan, Ali Evren; Bilici, Rabia; Usta, Genco; Erdoğan, Ayten (22 June 2012). "Mood disorder with mixed, psychotic features due to vitamin b12 deficiency in an adolescent: case report". Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 6 (1): 25. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-6-25. ISSN 1753-2000. PMC 3404901. PMID 22726236.
  112. ^ a b Thought Disorder (2016), 25.6. Relationship Between Thought Disorders and Other Symptoms of Schizophrenia., pp. 503–504. cited
  113. ^ Miller DD, Arndt S, Andreasen NC (2004). "Alogia, attentional impairment, and inappropriate affect: their status in the dimensions of schizophrenia". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 34 (4): 221–6. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(93)90002-L. PMID 8348799.
  114. ^ Phenomenology of Schizophrenia (2017), THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA, Negative Symptoms. "The two-syndrome concept as formulated by T. J. Crow was especially important in spurring research into the nature of negative symptoms ... but this does not diminish the creative efforts that led to these scales or importance of these scales for research. In fact, it was only through careful analysis of the structure of symptoms in these scales that a more accurate characterization of the phenomenology of schizophrenia was possible."

Sources

  • VandenBos GR, ed. (2015). APA dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/14646-000. ISBN 978-1-4338-1944-5.
  • Sadock VA, Sadock BJ, Ruiz P, eds. (2017). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. ISBN 978-1-4511-0047-1.
  • Sadock BJ, Sadock VA (2008). Kaplan and Sadock's Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781787468.
  • Andreasen NC (2016). "25 Thought Disorder". In Fatemi SH, Clayton PJ (eds.). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (4th ed.). New York: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 497–505. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5. ISBN 978-1-4939-2528-5.
  • McKenna PJ, Oh TM (2005). Schizophrenic Speech: Making Sense of Bathroots and Ponds that Fall in Doorways. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81075-3.
Categories