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((italic title))
((refimprove|date=July 2019))
((Short description|Han dynasty-introduced agricultural system))
((Chinese
|c=屯田
|p=túntián
|l="garrisoning (on) farms"
|c2=屯墾
|p2=túnkĕn
|l2="garrisoning and reclaiming wasteland"
|c3=农墾
|p3=nóngkĕn
|l3="farming and reclaiming wasteland"
|vie=đồn điền
|hiragana=とんでん
|romaji=tonden<!-- kunrei/nihon -->
|hangul=둔전
|rr=dunjeon
|mr=tunjŏn
))

'''''Tuntian''''' (屯田) or '''''tunken''''' (屯墾) was a type of frontier "military-agricultural [[Colonies in antiquity|colonies]]"<ref name="Muscolino2010">((cite journal|title=Refugees, Land Reclamation, and Militarized Landscapes in Wartime China: Huanglongshan, Shaanxi, 1937-45|last=Muscolino|first=Micah S.|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|volume=69|issue=2|date=2010|page=458, 459 |doi= 10.1017/S0021911810000057 | issn = 0021-9118 |s2cid=162487893|url=|quote=To take advantage of these natural benefits, Shaanxi needed to "set aside Huanglongshan as a military-agricultural colony (''tuntian'') and transfer troops to cultivate it, imitating the ancient system of supporting the military through agriculture". [...] First priority in developing China's northwestern frontier was "research on military agricultural colonies (yanjiu ''tunken'')".))</ref><ref>((cite news|title=Chinese Empire after Empire: Agrarian Colonization on the Twentieth-Century Frontier|work=The Council on East Asian Studies at Yale University|date=2021-04-22|last= Frank|first=Mark|url=https://ceas.yale.edu/events/chinese-empire-after-empire-agrarian-colonization-twentieth-century-frontier|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108170636/https://ceas.yale.edu/events/chinese-empire-after-empire-agrarian-colonization-twentieth-century-frontier|archive-date=2022-01-08|quote=Proponents of this strategy drew inspiration from the imperial institution of ''tuntian'' (colonial fields) in formulating a modern vision of ''tunken'', which I interpret as agrarian colonization.))</ref> in the history of China. Troops were sent to harsh landscapes at the Chinese frontier to turn uncultivated land into self-sustained, [[arable land|agrarian]] [[settler colony|settler colonies]]. In other words, the soldiers doubled as farmers. The system was also adopted by other regimes throughout the [[Sinosphere|Chinese cultural sphere]].

==Han dynasty==
((further|Economy of the Han dynasty))
The ''tuntian'' system or "Strategy of military farms" evolved during the famous victorious campaign of 61–60 BC by ((ill|Zhao Chongguo|de|Zhao Chongguo)) against the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang people]], which presumed ancestors of the Tibetans.<ref name="Dreyer2008">((cite journal |last1=L. Dreyer |first1=Edward |title=Zhao Chongguo: A Professional Soldier of China's Former Han Dynasty |journal=The Journal of Military History |date=2008 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=665–725 |doi=10.1353/jmh.0.0028 | issn = 1543-7795  |url= https://muse.jhu.edu/article/241165 |access-date=26 January 2022 |series=Society for Military History |s2cid=159687819 |language=en))</ref>

While the ''tuntian'' system was made famous by [[Cao Cao]]'s administration (((circa)) 196–220 CE), Cao Cao's writings show that the system had been instituted as early as the [[Western Han dynasty]] during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] (((reign)) 141–87 BCE), where soldiers on distant expeditions were set to work converting and farming the conquered land, both to provide food for the army and to convert the conquered land into agricultural land.<ref>((cite book|last=Elvin|first=Mark|title=The Pattern of the Chinese Past|year=1973|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, CA|isbn=0-804-70876-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/patternofchines00elvi/page/37 37]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/patternofchines00elvi/page/37))</ref> After the death of Emperor Wu, however, the system was only used sporadically and therefore less effectively.

The [[End of the Han dynasty|final years]] of the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (((circa)) 189–220 CE) witnessed great economic disruption and widespread devastation, particularly through the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] of 184 CE; agricultural production in particular was severely disrupted, and population movements from war-ravaged areas led to massive flows of refugees. It was under these circumstances that Cao Cao's use of the ''tuntian'' system made its impact on the economic revival of China after the damage suffered previously.

===Method===
The mechanism of the 'civilian ''tuntian''<nowiki/>' system as implemented by Cao Cao had its basis in government organisation, encouragement and, to some extent, coercion. Peasants without land, refugees and soldiers were assigned to plots of land which they were to farm, while the implements required (such as [[plough]]s and oxen) were provided by the government at a low price. In exchange for this, the peasant was to give over half of his harvest to the government.

The ''tuntian'' system had its origins in the military, and for much of the Han dynasty the land in question was farmed by soldiers on orders of the military authorities; in this case all of the crop harvested was to be kept by the military for supply uses, following the example set by [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]]. Cao Cao's innovation was the introduction of the 'civilian ''tuntian''<nowiki/>' on a large scale both for common people and for soldiers during peacetime, whereby he successfully solved two great economic problems facing his administration: the large number of unemployed refugees, and the great tracts of land abandoned by big proprietors in the preceding chaos.

===Impact===
The ''tuntian'' system was to have far-reaching effects, both for Cao Cao himself and for the overall economy of China. Once the scheme had proven successful initially, Cao Cao wasted no time in extending the scheme to all areas under his control; as a result the positive effects of this organised farming was soon felt all over northern China, which he reunified.((citation needed|date=January 2022))

In the short-term, meanwhile, the ''tuntian'' system was also instrumental to the success of Cao Cao's campaigns, many of which were long-range offensives across the plains of northern China; with a massive and efficient agriculture to support his army, he was able to sustain these offensives and gain victory. Overall, the ''tuntian'' system, along with the repair of irrigation works, were among the foremost contributions of Cao Cao to the [[economy of the Han dynasty]], and contributed to the enduring strength of the state of [[Cao Wei]] in the [[Three Kingdoms]] period.((citation needed|date=January 2022))

==Ming dynasty==
The ''tuntian'' in Ming dynasty had two variants, known as [[Tunpu|''tunpu'']] (屯堡) and [[Weisuo|''weisuo'']] (衛所制).<ref>((cite book|title=Tuntian farming of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)|last=Liew|first=Foon-Ming|date=1984))</ref>

==Qing dynasty==
''Tuntian'' was widely practiced to fight the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)]].<ref name="LiuFan2016">((cite journal|title=The Tuntian System in Xinjiang under the Qing Dynasty: A Perspective from Environmental History|first1=Ts'ui-Jung|last1=Liu|first2=I-Chun|last2=Fan|journal=International Review of Environmental History |volume=2 |issue= |date=2016 |page= |doi=10.22459/IREH.02.2016.04 | issn = 2205-3204  |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2057/pdf/04_liu_fan.pdf | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180602032047/http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2057/pdf/04_liu_fan.pdf |archive-date=2018-06-02 |doi-access=free ))</ref>

==People's Republic of China==
''Tuntian'' was known as [[tuanchang|''tuanchang'']] (团场, literally "Regiment farms"), a military-run polity established by the [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]] since 1953. A large amount of other P&C Corps were established in 1968-1970 and all were disbanded by 1976.<ref name="Rossabi">((Cite book|title=Governing China's Multiethnic Frontiers|first=Morris|last=Rossabi|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|year=2005|pages=157–158))</ref> 

The general concept of fully government-owned agricultural developments in the PRC is known as ''nóngkĕn''. A ((ill|Ministry of Nongken|zh|农垦部)) is part of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]] during the periods of 1956&ndash;1970 and 1979&ndash;1982. It controlled state-owned farms including ''tuanchang''. ''Nóngkĕn'' in a broader sense would also include smaller-scale farms managed by government assets such as schools; these are outside of the Ministry's scope.<ref>((Cite book|trans-title=The Grand Dictionary of the History of the PRC|script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国史大辞典|editor=张晋藩 |editor2=海威 |editor3=初尊贤|publisher=黑龙江人民出版社|year=1992|isbn=7-207-02281-6|location=哈尔滨|pages=595))</ref>

==Elsewhere==
The term ''tuntian'' was adopted by other regimes in the [[Sinosphere]], forming their own readings, some of which are [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations|Sino-Xenic]].

===Taiwan===
The Han-led [[Kingdom of Tungning]] practiced a variant of the Ming-era ''tuntian'' system. The system was established by [[Koxinga]] immediately after landing in 1661 to supply his troops. Many places in southwest Taiwan retain their ''tuntian'' names.<ref>((cite web |title=明鄭屯墾地區分布圖 |url=http://thcts.ascc.net/themes/rb01.php |website=thcts.ascc.net))</ref>

=== Vietnam ===
The [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese reading]] is ''đồn điền'' in Vietnamese. During the [[Nam tiến]] (March to the South), Khmer and [[Chams|Cham]] territory was seized and militarily colonised by the Vietnamese. The Nguyen Lords established ''đồn điền'' after 1790.<ref name="Wook2004">((cite book|author=Choi Byung Wook|title=Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820-1841): Central Policies and Local Response|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foZAdRgB-nwC&pg=PA34|year=2004|publisher=SEAP Publications|isbn=978-0-87727-138-3|pages=34–))</ref>

The South Vietnamese and Communist Vietnamese colonisation of the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] have been compared to the historic Nam tiến of previous Vietnamese rulers. The South Vietnamese leader [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] sponsored colonisation of Northern Vietnamese Catholic refugees on [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnard]] land. The now Communist Vietnamese government introduced to the Central Highlands of "New Economic Zones".<ref name="Salemink2003">((cite book|author=Oscar Salemink|title=The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850-1990|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&pg=PA151|year=2003|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2579-9|pages=151–))</ref>

===Japan===
''Tuntian'' is pronounced ''tonden'' as a [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese word]]. It was most notably practiced during the [[Meiji Restoration]] in frontier [[Hokkaido]] under the name [[tondenhei|''tondenhei'']] ("tonden-soldiers").<ref>((cite book |last1=Ivings |first1=Steven |chapter=Settling the Frontier, Defending the North: “Farmer-Soldiers” in Hokkaido’s Colonial Development and National Reconciliation |title =The Meiji Restoration |date=7 May 2020 |pages=191–211 |doi=10.1017/9781108775762.010|s2cid=218799685 ))</ref>

===Korea===
The [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean reading]] of ''tuntian'' is ''dunjeon'' (or ''tunjŏn'' in the [[Romanization of Korean (North)|North Korean Romanization]]). ''Dunjeon'' was a core part of the Korean military supply and was notable in the following instances:
* During the [[Qing invasion of Joseon]], at [[Namhansanseong]]. This system supported a population of 25,000, 10,000 of which were combatants.<ref>((cite web |title=Dunjeon and Maetanteo |url=https://ggc.ggcf.kr/en/p/5c0d87bdaddde277f44a3bff |website=ggc.ggcf.kr |language=ko))</ref>
* During the [[Imjin War]], under [[Yi Sun-sin]]. He managed dunjeon both as part of his repeated demotion (due to court politics) and on his naval base of [[Hansando]].<ref>((cite web |title=Yi sun sin, The Legendary Hero : VANK |url=http://prkorea.com/yisunsin/timeline.htm |website=prkorea.com))</ref>

== Place names ==
Places with a history of ''tuntian'' cultivation may be named after the practice.
* ((ill|Tonden, Kita-ku, Sapporo|ja|屯田 (札幌市北区))), Japan
* ((ill|Higashi-Tondendori Station|ja|東屯田通停留場)), [[Chūō-ku, Sapporo]], Japan
* [[Dunjeon station]], [[Yongin]], South Korea
* [[Tunjon station]], [[South Hamgyong Province]], North Korea

The following areas contain place names derived from a systematic ''tuntian'' designation:
* Various place names in Taiwan, under [[Koxinga]]'s rule, commonly ending with ((lang|zh|營)) or ((lang|zh|庄)).<ref>((cite web |title=地名應用 [menu: 地名故事 -> 鄭成功與台灣地名] |url=http://gn.geog.ntu.edu.tw/GeoNames/usage.aspx |website=地名資訊服務網 gn.geog.ntu.edu.tw))</ref>
* Various place names in China, especially [[Xinjiang]], [[Inner Mongolia]], and [[Heilongjiang]].<ref>((cite web |last1=Ru-Chen |first1=Niu |title=屯垦地名学 |url=https://inf.news/zh-my/culture/37b591fc434ab40de0ef38dd82bcdbcb.html |website=inf.news))</ref>

==See also==
((Wiktionary|屯田|屯墾|农墾))
* [[Agriculture in China]]
* [[Economic history of China]]
* [[Theme (Byzantine district)]]

==References==
((reflist))

=== Bibliography ===
((more footnotes|date=April 2022))
* [[Chen Shou|Chen, Shou]]. ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'' (''Sanguozhi'').
* [[Pei Songzhi|Pei, Songzhi]]. ''[[Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'' (''Sanguozhi zhu'').
* [[Sima Guang|Sima, Guang]]. ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]''.

((Authority control))

[[Category:History of agriculture in China]]
[[Category:Han dynasty]]
[[Category:Veterans' settlement schemes]]

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