Umayyad campaigns in India
Part of Early Muslim conquests and Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent
Sindh and neighbouring kingdoms in 700 AD
Date 712–740 CE Location First: Sindh and Punjab Later: Rajasthan, Gujarat & Kashmir Result Victory of Indian Kingdoms Territorial changes Umayyad expansion checked and contained to Sindh.
Belligerents
Karkota Dynasty Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty Chalukya dynasty Mori Kingdom Maitraka dynasty	Umayyad Caliphate Vilayet Al-Sindh
Commanders and leaders
Lalitaditya Muktapida Nagabhata I Bappa Rawal Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin	Muhammad bin Qasim Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi Al Hakam ibn Awana †

The Umayyad Dynasty came to rule the Caliphate in 661 CE, and during the first half of the 8th century CE, a series of battles took place in the Indian subcontinent between armies of the Umayyad Caliphate and Indian kingdoms situated to the east of the Indus river,^[1] subsequent to the Arab conquest of Sindh in present-day Pakistan during 711 – 713 CE.

During the Rashidun Caliphate (632 – 661 CE), a few raids were launched in India, but no permanent conquest took place. The second wave of military expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate lasted from 692 to 718 CE. The reign of Al-Walid I (705–715 CE) saw the most dramatic Marwanid Umayyad conquests, in a period of barely ten years, North Africa, Spain, Transoxiana, and Sindh were subdued and colonized by the Arabs.^[2] Sindh, ruled by King Raja Dahir of the Rai dynasty, was captured by the Umayyad general Muhammad bin Qasim,^[3] which became a second-level province of the Caliphate (iqlim) and a suitable base for excursions into India, but, after bin Qasim's departure in 715 CE most of his captured territories were recaptured by Indian kings.^[4]

Yazid II (720 to 724 CE) launched the third Umayyad expansion alongall the warring frontiers, including in India, which resulted in a series of battles between the Arabs and Silluka (725 – 750 CE) of the Pratiharas of Mandavyapura, Nagabhata I of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, Siladitta IV (710-740 CE) of Maitraka dynasty, Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty, and other small Indian kingdoms between 724 and 750 CE. Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri (723 – 726 CE) recaptured Sindh, conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, however, Arab forces invading Malwa were defeated by Nagabhata I of the Pratihara Dynasty in 725 CE.^[5]

The fourth Umayyad campaign was launched after Arabs lost control of Sindh and conquered territories of Rajasthan and Gujarat under Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi (726 – 731 CE). Al-Hakam ibn Awana, assisted by Amr, son of Muhammad ibn Qasim, pacified Sindh, established garrison cities of Al Mahfuza and Al Mansura, then campaigned in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Lalitadyata Muktapida and Yashovarman of Kannauj checked the Arabs in Punjab, although Al-Hakam conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, the Arabs were decisively defeated at Navsari in 739 CE by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, a general of Vikramaditya II.^[6] Arabs lost their conquests in Rajasthan and Gujarat by 743 CE. These events took place during the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 691–743 CE), the 10th Umayyad Caliph, which saw a turn in the fortune of the Umayyads which resulted in eventual defeat on all the fronts and a complete halt of Arab expansionism. The hiatus from 740 to 750 CE due to military exhaustion, also saw the advent of the third of a series of civil wars, which resulted in the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate.^[7]

The Arab defeats led to an end of their eastward expansion in India, and later manifested in the overthrow of Arab rulers in Sindh itself and the establishment of indigenous Muslim dynasties (Soomras and Sammas) there.^[8]

Background

The first incursion by Arabs in India occurred around 636/7 AD, during the Rashidun Caliphate, long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land.^[9] Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi, the governor of Bahrain and Oman, had dispatched the naval expeditions against the ports and positions of the Sasanian Empire, and further east to the borders of India,^[10] as confirmed by the contemporary Armenian historian Sebeos who confirms Arab naval raids against the Sasanian littoral.^[10]

Uthman, on his own initiative, according to the history of al-Baladhuri, had also launched the first Arab naval raids against the ports of the Indian subcontinent, the first of these raids targeted Thane^[11] (a small town near Mumbai), then two expeditions were sent against Bharuch (a city in Gujarat) and Debal (a town near Karachi).^[11][12][13] The assault on Thane, the first Arab raid on India, was commanded by Uthman's brother al-Hakam, who later led the raid on Bharuch.^[14] The raids on Thane and Bharuch may have been successful as the Arabs had lost no men during these raids,.^[11][15] but al-Baladhuri does not specifically state these raids as successful,(al-Balādhurī 1924, p. 209), so some scholars are of the opinion that the Arabs raids may have been failures.^{[16][17][18][19]} The following raid on Debal was commanded by another brother, al-Mughira.^[20] The raids were probably launched in c. 636 according to al-Baladhuri.^[21] These expeditions were not sanctioned by Caliph Umar and Uthman escaped punishment only because there weren't any casualties.^[22] The raid on Debal was also a success,^[11][16] but it is unlikely to have taken place in 643 CE as Umar was still the Caliph and Uthman was unlikely to disobey his directive on sea raids, and the source reporting this is deemed unreliable.^[23][11]

The motivation for these expeditions may have been to seek plunder or to attack pirates to safeguard Arabian trade in the Arabian Sea, not to start the conquest of India.^[24] However scholars have also expressed the opinion all three raids were successfully repulsed.^[25] Arabs led by Suhail b. Abdi and Hakam al Taghilbi later defeated a Sindhi army in the Battle of Rasil in 644 beside the Indian Ocean sea coast, then reached the Indus River.^[26] Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab denied them permission to cross the river or operate in Makran and the Arabs returned home.^[27]

Campaign by Muhammad bin Qasim (712–715)

Muhammad bin Qasim, after his conquest of Sindh, wrote to `the kings of Hind' calling upon them to surrender and accept the faith of Islam.^[28] He dispatched a force against al-Baylaman (Bhinmal), which is said to have offered submission. The Mid people of Surast (Maitrakas of Vallabhi) also made peace.^[29] Bin Qasim then sent a detachment of 10,000 cavalry to Kanauj along with a decree from the Caliph. He himself went with an army to the prevailing frontier of Kashmir called panj-māhīyāt (in west Punjab).^[30] Nothing is known of the Kanauj expedition. The frontier of Kashmir might be what is referred to as al-Kiraj in later records (Kira kingdom in Kangra Valley, Himachal Pradesh^[31]), which was apparently subdued.^[32]

Bin Qasim was recalled in 715 CE and died en route. Al-Baladhuri writes that, upon his departure, the kings of al-Hind had come back to their kingdoms. The period of Caliph Umar II (r. 717–720) was relatively peaceful. Umar invited the kings of "al-Hind" to convert to Islam and become his subjects, in return for which they would continue to remain kings. Hullishah of Sindh and other kings accepted the offer and adopted Arab names.^[33]

Campaign by Al Junayd (723–726)

During the caliphates of Yazid II (r. 720–724) and Hisham (r. 724–743), the expansion policy was resumed. Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri (or Al Junayd) was appointed the governor of Sindh in 723 CE.

After subduing Sindh, Junayd sent campaigns to various parts of India. The justification was that these parts had previously paid tribute to Bin Qasim but then stopped. The first target was al-Kiraj (possibly Kangra valley), whose conquest effectively put an end to the kingdom. A large campaign was carried out in Rajasthan which included Mermad (Maru-Mada, in Jaisalmer and north Jodhpur), al-Baylaman (Bhillamala or Bhinmal) and Jurz (Gurjara country—southern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat). Another force was sent against Uzayn (Ujjain), which made incursions into its country (Avanti) and some parts of it were destroyed (the city of Baharimad, unidentified). Ujjain itself was not conquered. A separate force was also sent against al-Malibah (Malwa, to the east of Ujjain^[34]), but the outcome is not recorded.^[35]

Towards the North, Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by Lalitaditya Muktapida of Kashmir.^[36] Another force was dispatched south. It subdued Qassa (Kutch), al-Mandal (perhaps Okha), Dahnaj (unidentified), Surast (Saurashtra) and Barus or Barwas (Bharuch).^[35]

The kingdoms weakened or destroyed included the Bhattis of Jaisalmer, the Gurjaras of Bhinmal, the Mauryas of Chittor, the Guhilots of Mewar, the Kacchelas of Kutch, the Maitrakas of Saurashtra and Gurjaras of Nandipuri. Altogether, Al-Junayd might have conquered all of Gujarat, a large part of Rajasthan, and some parts of Madhya Pradesh. Blankinship states that this was a full-scale invasion carried out with the intent of founding a new province of the Caliphate.^[37]

In 726 CE, the Caliphate replaced Al-Junayd by Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi (Tamim) as the governor of Sindh. During the next few years, all of the gains made by Junayd were lost. The Arab records do not explain why, except to state that the Caliphate troops, drawn from distant lands such as Syria and Yemen, abandoned their posts in India and refused to go back. Blankinship admits the possibility that the Indians must have revolted, but thinks it more likely that the problems were internal to the Arab forces.^[38]

Governor Tamim is said to have fled Sindh and died en route. The Caliphate appointed al-Hakam ibn Awana al-Kalbi (Al-Hakam) in 731 who governed till 740.

Al-Hakam and Indian resistance (731–740)

Al-Hakam restored order to Sindh and Kutch and built secure fortifications at Al-Mahfuzah and Al-Mansur. He then proceeded to retake Indian kingdoms previously conquered by Al-Junayd. The Arab sources are silent on the details of the campaigns. However, several Indian sources record victories over the Arab forces.^[39]

The king of Nandipuri, Jayabhata IV, documented, in an inscription dated to 736 CE, that he went to the aid of the king of Vallabhi and inflicted a crushing defeat on a Tājika (Arab) army. The Arabs then overran the kingdom of Jayabhata himself and proceeded on to Navsari in southern Gujarat.^[40] The Arab intention might have been to make inroads into South India. However, to the south of the Mahi River lay the powerful Chalukyan empire. In the Battle of Navsari, the Chalukyan viceroy Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin decisively defeated the invading Arab forces as documented in a Navsari grant of 739 CE. The Tājika (Arab) army defeated was, according to the grant, one that had attacked "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, Maurya and Gurjara" kings. Pulakeshin subsequently received the titles "Solid Pillar of Deccan" (Dakshināpatha-sādhāra) and the "Repeller of the Unrepellable" (Anivartaka-nivartayitr). The Rashtrakuta prince Dantidurga, who was subsidiary to Chalukyas at this time, also played an important role in the battle.^[41]

The kingdoms recorded in the Navsari grant are interpreted as follows: Kacchelas were the people of Kutch. The Saindhavas are thought to have been emigrants from Sindh, who presumably moved to Kathiawar after the Arab occupation of Sindh in 712 CE. Settling down in the northern tip of Kathiawar, they had a ruler by the name of Pushyadeva. The Cavotakas (also called Capotaka or Capa) were also associated with Kathiawar, with their capital at Anahilapataka. Saurashtra is south Kathiawar. The Mauryas and Gurjaras are open to interpretation. Blankinship takes them to be the Mauryas of Chittor and Gurjaras of Bhinmal whereas Baij Nath Puri takes them to be a subsidiary line of Mauryas based in Vallabhi and the Gurjaras of Bharuch under Jayabhata IV. In Puri's interpretation, this invasion of the Arab forces was limited to the southern parts of modern Gujarat with several small kingdoms, which was halted by the Chalukyan empire.^[42]

Indications are that Al-Hakam was overstretched. An appeal for reinforcements from the Caliphate in 737 is recorded, with men being sent, a surprisingly small 3000 contingent. Even this force was absorbed in its passage through Iraq for quelling a local rebellion.^[43] The defeat at the hands of Chalukyas is believed to have been a blow to the Arab forces with large costs in men and arms.^[43]

The weakened Arab forces were driven out by the subsidiaries of the erstwhile kings. The Guhilot prince Bappa Rawal (r. 734–753) drove out the Arabs who had put an end to the Maurya dynasty at Chittor.^[44] A Jain prabandha mentions a king Nahada, who is said to have been the first ruler of his family at Jalore, near Bhinmal, and who came into conflict with a Muslim ruler whom he defeated.^[45] Nahada is identified with Nagabhata I (r. 730–760), the founder of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, which is believed to have started from the Jalore-Bhinmal area and spread to Avanti at Ujjain.^[46] The Gwalior inscription of the king Bhoja I, says that Nagabhata, the founder of the dynasty, defeated a powerful army of Valacha Mlecchas (foreigners called "Baluchs"^[47]) around 725 CE.^[48] Even though many historians believe that Nagabhata repulsed Arab forces at Ujjain, there is no authentic information about where precisely he encountered them.

Baij Nath Puri states that the Arab campaigns to the east of Indus proved ineffective. However, they had the unintended effect of integrating the Indian kingdoms in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Chalukyas extended their empire to the north after fighting off the Arabs successfully. Nagabhata I secured a firm position and laid the foundation for a new dynasty, which would rise to become the principal deterrent against Arab expansion.^[49] Blankinship also notes that Hakam's campaigns caused the creation of larger, more powerful kingdoms, which was inimical to the caliphate's interests.^[50] Al-Hakam died in battle in 740 CE while fighting the Meds of north Saurashtra (Maitrakas, probably under the control of Chalukyas at this time).^[51]

Aftermath

The death of Al-Hakam effectively ended the Arab presence to the east of Sindh. In the following years, the Arabs were preoccupied with controlling Sindh. They made occasional raids to the seaports of Kathiawar to protect their trading routes but did not venture inland into Indian kingdoms.^[52] Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief of Berar turned against his Chalukya overlords in 753 and became independent. The Gurjara-Pratiharas immediately to his north became his foes and the Arabs became his allies, due to the geographic logic as well as the economic interests of sea trade. The Pratiharas extended their influence throughout Gujarat and Rajasthan almost to the edge of the Indus river, but their push to become the central power of north India was repeatedly thwarted by the Rashtrakutas. This uneasy balance of power between the three powers lasted till the end of the caliphate.^{[citation needed]}

Later in 776 CE, a naval expedition by the Arabs was defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet under Agguka I.^[53][54]

List of major battles

The table below lists some of the major military conflicts during the Arab expeditions in Gujarat and Rajasthan.^[55]