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((Short description|A sovereign predominant over other states))
((Monarchism |expanded=Varieties))
((Forms of government))
((Multiple issues|
((More citations needed|date=March 2010))
((POV|date=January 2024))
((Grammar|date=January 2024))
))

A '''universal monarchy''' is a concept and political situation where one monarchy is deemed to have either sole rule over everywhere (or at least the predominant part of a [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] area or areas) or to have a special supremacy over all other states (or at least all the states in a geopolitical area or areas).

==Concept==
Universal monarchy is differentiated from ordinary [[monarchy]] in that a universal monarchy is beholden to no other state and asserts a degree of total [[sovereignty]] over an area, or predominance over other states.

The concept has arisen in [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[Peru]]. The concept is linked to that of [[empire]], but implies more than simply possessing ''[[imperium]]''.

The Latin phrase ((lang|la|Dominus Mundi)) (((lit|Lord of the World))) encapsulates the concept. Though in practice no universal monarchy, or indeed any state, has ever ruled over the whole world, it may have appeared to many people, particularly pre-modern, that it did.

Critical of the concept in Europe in the Middle Ages were philosophers such as [[Nicole Oresme]]<ref>Mastnak, Tomaž. ''Crusading peace: Christendom, the Muslim world, and Western political order'' University of California Press, (2002), p 329.</ref> and [[Erasmus]];<ref>Persson, Hans-Åke and Stråth, Bo. ''Reflections on Europe: defining a political order in time and space''. [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]]. (2007), pp.&nbsp;51&ndash;52</ref> whereas [[Guillaume Postel]]<ref>Kuntz, Marion Leathers. ''Guillaume Postel, prophet of the restitution of all things: his life and thought'', ''Springer'', (1981), p.&nbsp;171.</ref> was more favourable and [[Dante]] was a convinced adherent. Later, [[Protestants]] would seek to reject the concept, identifying it with [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]].<ref>Simms, Brendan & Riotte, Torsten (Editors). ''The Hanoverian dimension in British History, 1714&ndash;1837'', Cambridge University Press, (2007), pp.&nbsp;168&ndash;169.</ref>

==History==
=== Egypt and Mesopotamia ===
For the ancient Egyptians, four directions of the world were regarded as "united in one head" of king. [[Ramses III]] was presented as the "commander of the whole land united in one."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt. Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest'', ed. [[James Henry Breasted]], London: Forgotten Books, 1988, vol. 2/1015, p.&nbsp;418; vol. 4/398&ndash;400, pp.&nbsp;198&ndash;200.</ref> Except for the [[Amarna period]], Egypt's official ideology did not recognize coexistence of two or more kings. "The monarchy in Egypt constituted a unity, a single fraction, with universal application."<ref>[[Donald Redford]], "The concept of kingship during the Eighteenth Dynasty," ''Ancient Egyptian Kingship'', eds. D. E. O'Connor, & D. P. Sullivan, Leiden& New York: Brill Academic, 1995, p 168.</ref> ''The Hymn of Victory'' of [[Thutmose III]] and the ''Stelae of [[Amenophis II]]'' proclaimed: "There is no one who makes a boundary with him&nbsp;... There is no boundary for him towards all lands united, towards all lands together."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt'', vol 2/792, p 311;</ref><ref>[[Mario Liverani]], ''Prestige and Interest: International Relations in the Near East c. 1600 – 1100 BC'', Padova: Palgrave, 1990, p.&nbsp;58.</ref> Thutmose III was acknowledged: "None presents himself before thy majesty. The circuit of the Great Circle [Ocean] is included in thy grasp."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt'', vol 2/657&ndash;661, pp.&nbsp;264&ndash;265.</ref> Asiatic kings recognized [[Tutankhamen]]: "There is none living in ignorance of thee."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt'', vol 2/1032, p.&nbsp;424.</ref>

The King was believed to be Son of the Sun and to rule all under the sun. The ascent of a king was associated with sunrise. The same verb "dawned" was used for the ascent of king and the rising of the sun.<ref>[[James Henry Breasted]], ''Ancient Records of Egypt. Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest'', London: Forgotten Books, 1988, vol II, p 24.</ref> On ''Abydos Stelae'', [[Thutmose I]] claimed: "I made the boundaries of Egypt as far as the sun encircles ... Shining like [[Ra]] ... forever."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt'', 2/98, p 40.</ref> The sun symbolized universality both in space and time. ''The Story of Sinuke'' expresses both: May all the gods "give you eternity without limits, infinity without bonds! May the fear of you resound in lowlands and highlands, for you have subdued all that the sun encircles."<ref>''Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Reading'', ed. Miriam Lichtheim, London: University of California Press, vol I, p 230.</ref>

The genre of [[king list]]s also illustrates the universality of monarchy. Introduced into the Egyptian tradition in the reign of [[Unas]] (2385&ndash;2355 BC) of the [[Fifth Dynasty]], the ideological purpose of the genre was to stress the royal universality as the only legitimate king stretching back in an unbroken succession to the time of gods.<ref>[[Amelie Kuhrt]], ''The Ancient Near East c. 3000 – 330 BC'', London & New York: Routledge, 1995, vol I, p 31.</ref>

The contemporary Mesopotamian civilization had a much weaker tradition of universal monarchy, but it also developed a [[Sumerian king list|King list]] with the same ideological purpose to stress the royal universality as the only legitimate king stretching back in an unbroken succession to the time of gods. Mesopotamian kings did not claim to rule all that the sun encircles, but they did claim to be "[[King of the Four Corners]]" of the world and "King of the inhabited world".<ref>P. Michalowski, "Memory and deed: The historiography of the political expansion of the Akkad state", ''Akkad: The First World Empire: Structure, Ideology, Traditions'', ed. Mario Liverani, Padua: Palgrave, 1993, pp.&nbsp;88&ndash;89.</ref>

===Europe===
((see also|Dominium mundi))
In Europe, the expression of a universal monarchy as total ''imperium'' can be seen in the [[Roman Empire]], and as the predominant sovereign state during its [[Byzantine]] period, where the emperor by virtue of being the head of [[Christendom]] claimed sovereignty over all other kings even though in practice this could not be enforced. The Byzantine conception went through two phases, initially as expounded by [[Eusebius]] that just as there was one God so there could only be one Emperor,<ref>Nicol, D.M. ''Byzantine political thought'' in Burns, J. H.  ''The Cambridge history of medieval political thought c. 350-c. 1450'' Cambridge University Press 1988 pp.&nbsp;52&ndash;53</ref> which developed in the 10th century into the conception of the Emperor as the ''[[paterfamilias]]'' of a family of kings who were the other rulers in the world.<ref>Nicol, D.M. ''Byzantine political thought'' in Burns, J. H.  ''The Cambridge history of medieval political thought c. 350-c. 1450'' Cambridge University Press 1988 p.&nbsp;57</ref>  Such concepts were a feature of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire's]] successor state, particularly when military rule was augmented by the [[Caliphate]].

The idea of a sole sovereign emperor would re-emerge in the West with [[Charlemagne]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Bryce, James ''The Holy Roman Empire'' p.&nbsp;209</ref>  The idea of the Holy Roman Empire possessing special sovereignty as a universal monarchy was respected by the surrounding powers and subject states, even when the empire had undergone severe fragmentation.<ref>Brissaud, Jean ''A History of French Public Law'' John Murray (1915) p.&nbsp;77</ref>  The symbolism of the "All the world is subject to Austria" ([[A.E.I.O.U.]]) phrase of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] can be seen as an expression of the idea of all states being subject to one monarchy.<ref name="Habsburger">((cite news |url= http://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/aeiou |title=AEIOU |work=Die Welt der Habsburger |access-date=2 August 2018 ))</ref> The medieval [[hierocracy (medieval)|hierocrats]], on the other hand, argued that the [[pope]] was a universal monarch.<ref>((cite book|last=Sisson|first=Keith|year=2016|chapter=Popes over Princes: Hierocratic Theory|editor-last=Sisson|editor-first=Keith|editor-last2=Larson|editor-first2=Atria A.|title=A Companion to the Medieval Papacy: Growth of an Ideology and Institution|place=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004299856|pages=122–23))</ref>

[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]'s empire encompassing much of western Europe and the Americas "was the nearest the post-classical world would come to seeing a truly worldwide monarchy, and hence the closest approximation to universal imperium."<ref>Armitage, David ''The Ideological Origins of the British Empire'' Cambridge University Press (2000) p.&nbsp;32</ref> It was envisaged by its supporters as a world empire that could be religiously inclusive.<ref>Ocker, Christopher; Printy, Michael; Starenko, Peter (Editors) ''Politics and Reformations: Communities, Politics, Nations, and Empires'' Brill Academic Publishers (2007), 495.</ref>

Subsequently, the idea of a universal monarchy based on predominance rather than the actual total rule would become synonymous with France attempting to establish hegemony over western Europe, particularly under [[Louis XIV]],<ref>Simms, Brendan & Riotte, Torsten (Editors) ''The Hanoverian dimension in British History, 1714&ndash;1837'' Cambridge University Press (2007) p.&nbsp;168</ref> exemplified by the concept of Louis XIV as the ''Sun King'' around which all the other monarchs became subordinate satellites. In 1755, during the reign of Louis XIV's successor [[Louis XV]], Duke [[Adrien Maurice de Noailles]], a member of the Council of State and formerly a key foreign policy advisor to the king, warned of a British challenge for "the first rank in Europe" through the domination of Atlantic commerce. Noailles wrote, "However chimerical the project of universal monarchy might be, that of a universal influence by means of wealth would cease to be a chimera if a nation succeeded in making itself sole mistress of the trade of America."<ref>((cite journal |last=Shovlin |first=John |date=2010 |title=Selling American Empire on the Eve of the Seven Years War: The French Propaganda Campaign of 1755-1756 |journal=Past and Present |volume=206 |issue=1 |pages=121–149 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtp046 ))</ref>

Monarchy was strong in Russia. The Russian Monarchy was [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]], [[Autocracy|autocratic]], and possessed a vast contiguous empire throughout Europe and Asia and can be seen to have similarities and differences with Byzantine rule.<ref>Gavrov, Sergey [http://ru.wikipedia.org/?oldid=48502217] ''Modernization of the Empire. Social and Cultural Aspects of Modernization Processes in Russia'' URSS (2004) p.&nbsp;50 [https://doi.org/10.17169/refubium-18417]</ref> The British Monarchy was "Protestant, commercial, maritime and free"<ref>see Armitage, David ''The Ideological Origins of the British Empire'' Cambridge University Press (2000)</ref> and was not composed of contiguous territory. It had both similarities and differences with the [[Spanish Empire]]. Both were "[[Empire on which the sun never sets]]." While [[Catholicism]] provided ideological unity for the Spanish Empire, British Protestant diversity would lead to "disunity rather than unity".<ref>Armitage, David ''The Ideological Origins of the British Empire'' Cambridge University Press (2000) p.&nbsp;66</ref>  It was only later that [[federalism]] and economic control were seen as a means to provide unity where religious diversity could not, as with the idea of an [[Imperial Federation]] as promoted by [[Joseph Chamberlain]].

[[Napoleon]] came close to creating something akin to a universal monarchy with his [[continental system]] and [[Napoleonic Code]], but he failed to conquer all of Europe. Following the [[Battle of Jena]] when Napoleon overwhelmed Prussia, it seemed to [[Fichte]] that the universal monarchy was inevitable and close at hand. He found a "necessary tendency in every civilized state" to expand and traced this tendency to [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. An "invisible" historical spirit runs through all epochs and urges states onward. "As the States become stronger in themselves... the tendency towards a Universal Monarchy over the whole Christian World necessarily comes to light."<ref>Fichte, "Characteristics of the Present Age," 1806, ''Theory and Practice of the Balance of Power, 1486-1914: Selected European Writings'', (ed. Moorhead Wright, London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1975), pp.&nbsp;87&ndash;89.</ref> The last attempt to create a European universal monarchy was that attempted by [[Imperial Germany]] in [[World War I]]. "If Germany is victorious", thought [[Woodrow Wilson]] in 1917, "the German Kaiser would have been suzerain over most of Europe".<ref>Fischer, Fritz. ''Germany's Aims in the First World War''. (1967)</ref><ref>Niall, Ferguson, ''Virtual History: Alternatives and Counterfactuals'' (1999).</ref>

===East Asia===
((Expand section|date=March 2010))

A similar phenomenon occurred in China. The title "[[Son of Heaven]]" emerged during the [[Zhou dynasty]]. The title denotes universality((snd))ruling [[all under Heaven]]. The ''[[Classic of Poetry|Book of Odes]]'' says:
((Blockquote|
Beneath all heaven

There is no land that is not the king's;

Throughout the borders of the earth,

None who are not his subjects!<ref>Cited in [[Sima Qian]], ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', ed. [[Burton Watson]], Hong Kong: Columbia University Press, 1962, vol II, p 291.</ref><ref>Compare with the Egyptian kings who ruled "as far as the four pillars of heaven," or "as the heaven on every side." [[Mario Liverani]], ''International Relations in the Ancient Near East, 1600-1100 BC. Studies in Diplomacy''. New York: Palgrave, 2001, p 30.</ref>))
The title also denotes a higher, "heavenly" rule ("[[Celestial Empire]]"), in contrast to kings who rule between heaven and earth, and by extension today to presidents who are mere base earthly rulers. Imperial China, as well as Japan, was regarded by its citizens as a Universal Monarchy where all other monarchs were regarded as [[Tributary system of China|tributaries]]. In China this was exemplified in the Chinese name for the state which survives to this day, ''Zhongguo'', meaning "Middle/Central Kingdom". Since the title Son of Heaven originated during the [[Zhou dynasty]], the Chinese perceived universal monarchy as the only correct rule. During the centuries-long period of independent states (771&ndash;221 BC), none of the known thinkers tried to develop a concept of separate national identity or independence:
((Blockquote|
Yet, when we examine the writing of the hundred schools of the [later] Zhou period, we are forcefully struck by the ongoing tenacious hold of the ancient idea of universal kingship even during this period of division. No outlook emerges that is prepared to treat the multistate system as normative or normal&nbsp;... No Chinese Grotius or Puffendorf emerges.<ref>[[Benjamin I. Schwartz]], "The Chinese perception of world order. Past and Present," ''The Chinese World Order: Traditional Chinese Foreign Relations'', eds. [[John King Fairbank]], Massachusetts: Cambridge, 1968, p 279.</ref><ref>Also [[Yuri Pines]], "'The One that pervades all' in ancient Chinese political thought," ''T'oung Pao'', 2000, p 298, 319.</ref>))
The inscription of the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] of China said: "Wherever life is found, all acknowledge his suzerainty."<ref>Chris Peers, ''Warlords of China, 700 BC to AD 1662'', London: Oxford, 1998, p 95.</ref> The [[Sinocentric]] paradigm survived until the 19th century. When [[George III]] (1780&ndash;1831) proposed them trading contacts, the Chinese declined, because "the Celestial Empire, ruling all within the four seas&nbsp;... does not have the slightest need of your country's manufactures." They added that George III must act in conformity with their wishes, strengthen his loyalty and swear perpetual obedience.<ref>Cited in [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], ''[[The Grand Chessboard]]: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives'', New York: Perseus Books, 1997, pp.&nbsp;14&ndash;15.</ref>

The Chinese concept of universal monarchy was taken up by the Mongols,<ref>Marshall, Robert ''Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan'' University of California Press (1993) p.&nbsp;156</ref><ref>Sicker, Martin ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna'' Greenwood Press (2000) p.&nbsp;107</ref> who under [[Genghis Khan]] were able to enforce this concept more widely than China. The Chinese Son of Heaven also contributed to a counterpart in Japan, but in some aspects, the Japanese made their monarchy more universal. The Chinese emperor was bound to the [[Mandate of Heaven]]. No such mandate existed for [[Tenno]]. Descended from the Sun goddess [[Amaterasu]] in the immemorial past, one Dynasty is supposed to rule Japan forever. The Chinese ended their dynastic cycle in 1911; [[Imperial House of Japan|the Japanese Dynasty]] continues until the present day and today is the oldest active dynasty in the world, albeit [[Douglas MacArthur]] undeified it in 1945.

The Hindu/Buddhist concept of the [[Chakravartin]] is a perfect illustration of the ideal of a Universal Monarch.<ref>Bhandarkar, D. R. ''Lectures on the Ancient History of India from 650–325 B.C.'' University of Calcutta (1919) pp.&nbsp;85–86</ref><ref>Beér, Robert ''The encyclopedia of Tibetan symbols and motifs'' Serindia Publications 2nd Revised edition(2004) pp.&nbsp;160–161</ref>

===The Islamic world===
In [[Sunni Islam]], the concept of the [[Caliphate]] can be considered a universal monarchy. Crucially, the Caliph is not necessarily a spiritual leader; rather, he is the secular head of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]] and is (theoretically) bound by and subject to Islamic law. The word ''Khalifah'' can be translated variously as ''successor, steward, deputy,'' or ''viceregent'', with the implication that the Caliph is the [[succession to Muhammad|worldly successor]] to the [[Prophet Muhammad]] (and importantly is ''not'' his spiritual successor; as Muhammad is considered to be the last prophet, Sunni Muslims hold that he can have no spiritual successor). The duties of the Caliph, in theory, include the administration of [[Sharia|Islamic law]]; the enactment of policies for the welfare of Muslims; the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques|custodianship of Islamic holy sites and care of pilgrims]]; the [[dhimmi|custodianship of conquered non-Muslims and mediation of their interests relative to those of Muslims]]; the prosecution of [[Islam and war|holy wars]] (both [[ghazw|offensive]] and [[jihad|defensive]]); and the representation of the diplomatic interests of the global Muslim community, even beyond the borders of the Caliphate's domains (a precedent set during [[diplomatic career of Muhammad|Muhammad's life]], with respect to the [[Migration to Abyssinia|early Islamic community in Ethiopia]]).

In [[Shia Islam]], the concept of the [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imamate]] is comparable to the Sunni [[Caliphate]], but it is not identical. The Shia Imam is considered to be both the spiritual and the secular leader of the [[Ummah|global Muslim community]]; therefore, the Imam not only holds authority over policy and administration but is also the [[ismah|infallible]] final arbiter in the interpretation of [[Sharia|law]] and [[aqidah|theology]]. However, like the Sunni caliph, the Shia imam's authority as a monarch is considered universal. The Imamate is tied to the [[Ahl al-Bayt]]; dynasties that claim the Imamate also claim descent from [[Muhammad]] via [[Ali]] and [[Fatimah]], and pass the title of Imam down from father to son, with different [[Shia Islam#Major denominations or branches|Shia denominations]] following different lineages. For example, the [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver Shia Muslims]] follow the line of [[the Twelve Imams]], of whom the last has supposedly been in [[Occultation (Islam)|occultation]] since the 9th century CE; however, the [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari Shia Muslims]] follow a [[Imamate in Nizari doctrine|different and still-living line of Imams]], of whom [[Aga Khan IV|the Agha-Khan IV]] is the current head.

=== Inca ===
In the Americas, the Inca monarchy was universal in the sense of a sole rule over the whole contemporary geopolitical area, around which were only unsettled societies.<ref>[[Arnold J. Toynbee]], "Preface," ''[[Comentarios Reales de los Incas|Royal Commentaries of the Incas and General History of Peru]]'' by [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]], (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2006).</ref> The Inca people called their state the "realm of the four quarters of the world."<ref>[[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]], 2:11. ''[[Comentarios Reales de los Incas|Royal Commentaries of the Incas and General History of Peru]]'', (tr. Harold Livermore, Indianapolis: Hackett, 2006), p 11.</ref><ref>Alan Colata, ''Ancient Inca'', New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013, p 1.</ref>), a concept of universality in space analogous to "four quarters" of other universal monarchies. As the Chinese called their country "Country in the middle," the Incas called their capital, [[Cusco]], "the navel of the world".<ref>Garcilaso de la Vega, 2:11; p 11.</ref> This civilization did not develop writing, but the Spanish reports and [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]] tell that the Inca monarchy was one of the most absolute and divine in history.<ref>Alan Colata, ''Ancient Inca'', New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013, p.&nbsp;8&ndash;9.</ref><ref>Rafael Karsten, ''A Totalitarian State of The Past: The Civilization of the Inca Empire in Ancient Peru'', Helsinki: Societas Scientarum Fennica, 1949.</ref>

Inca "was respected as god".<ref>Garcilaso de la Vega, 3:6, 20; p.&nbsp;13&ndash;14.</ref> As the kings of Egypt and Japan, the Inca were Sons of the Sun. And as the Egyptian kings, the Inca were mummified and worshipped as gods by subsequent generations.<ref>((Cite web |last= |first= |date=2020-07-15 |title=Mummification: The lost art of embalming the dead |url=https://www.livescience.com/mummification.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=livescience.com |language=en))</ref> Their names, like [[Viracocha Inca]], also imply their divinity and Burr Cartwright Brundage associated the above name with the Near Eastern concept of [[King of Kings]].<ref>''Empire of the Inca'', Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963, p 78.</ref> The title of the Incas, [[Sapa Inca]] (lit. 'the only emperor'),<ref>((Cite web |last=AncientPages.com |date=2016-01-27 |title=Who Was The Sapa Inca? |url=https://www.ancientpages.com/2016/01/27/who-was-the-sapa-inca/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Ancient Pages |language=en-US))</ref> implied that no other emperor could exist anywhere in the world. The Inca oral tradition preserved a [[King list]], an ideological genre of universal monarchies implying the universality in time and space. The Inca were of divine origins. Like the founder of the [[Imperial House of Japan|Japanese Dynasty]], the Inca founder, [[Manco Capac]] was the son of the [[Inti|god Sun]].

== Features ==
=== Cosmopolitanism ===
Universal monarchies were the cradle of [[cosmopolitanism]]. The earliest in history concept that men of all colors are equal comes from ancient Egypt. The [[Great Hymn to the Aten]] dated during the reign of [[Akhenaten]] of the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1353–1336 BC) reads: The "tongues of peoples differ in speech, their characters likewise; their skins are distinct, for Aten distinguished the peoples." But Aten cares for all of them. "In all lands of the world, you set every man in his place, you supply their need, everyone has his food..."<ref>''Ancient Egyptian Literature'', vol 1, p 98.</ref>

The Persian universal monarchs tolerated the cultures, languages, and religions of the subordinated peoples and supported local religious institutions.<ref>Myles Lavan, ''Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers, Local Elites, and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean'', New York: Oxford University Press, 2016, p 18.</ref> They ceased the mass deportations practiced by the previous [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonian Empires]], and allowed Jews to [[Return to Zion|return]] from the [[Babylonian captivity]] to their land and restore their [[Second Temple|Temple]].

Following the rise of the [[Maurya dynasty|Maurya]] to a universal dynasty in India, [[Buddhism]] replaced [[Brahmanism]] as the dominant creed and challenged its strict caste hierarchy. Buddhism advocated cosmopolitan social and religious equality.<ref>[[Gail Omvedt]], ''Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste'', Thousand Oaks: Sage India, 2003.</ref> However, the Mauryan universal monarchy was short-lived, and after its dissolution into independent kingdoms, Brahmanism made a comeback with Buddhism retreating to "underground survival" in India.<ref>Gail Omvedt 2003, p 21.</ref> Nevertheless, cosmopolitan Buddhism would find fertile soil in the universal monarchies of China and Japan.

Following the rise of [[Alexander the Great]] to the universal monarch, [[Stoicism]] became the dominant school of [[Hellenistic philosophy]]. The Stoics articulated a form of Greek citizenship that disrespected the walls of the polis hitherto thought to constrain human communities. Its founder, [[Zeno of Citium]] (c. 334 – c. 262 BC), advised that inhabitants of all poleis should form "one way of life and one order."<ref>Lavan 2016, p 7.</ref> Stoics were radically cosmopolitan by contemporary standards and preached to accept even slaves as "equals of other men because all men alike are products of nature."<ref>Cited in [[Bertrand Russell]], A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1967, p 253.</ref> Later Stoic thinker Seneca in his [[Letter 47 (Seneca)|Letter]] exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies." The Stoics held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. According to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. Stoicism became the foremost and most influential philosophy under the Hellenistic and Roman universal monarchs<ref>Lavan 2016, p 8.</ref> and often is called an official philosophy of the monarchy.<ref>Chaim Wirszubski, ''Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate'', Cambridge University Press, 1968, p 145.</ref>

Through [[Paul the Apostle]], Stoicism influenced the cosmopolitan revolution in Christianity. Paul decisively broke with the Judaist [[xenophobia]] and opened the new religion to all humanity. The [[chosen people]] were no longer ethnically defined. Combining the Stoic ideal with Christ, Paul called Christ-followers to embrace the ideal of a single humanity living in harmony with a divinely ordered cosmos. Hitherto reserved to the Jews, salvation became available to the Gentiles.<ref>[[Epistle to the Romans]], 2:16, 26.</ref><ref>John C. Dwyer, ''Church History: Twenty Centuries of Catholic Christianity'', New York: Paulist Press, 1998, p 27.</ref><ref>[[William Wrede]], ''Paul'', tr. Edward Lummis. London: Philip Green, 1907, p 179.</ref> A book titled ''Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers... and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean'', concludes: The cosmopolitanisms which emerged in the concerned regions in the [[Axial Age]] were products of universal monarchies.<ref>Lavan, p 12.</ref>

Under the universal monarchy on the other side of Tibet, cosmopolitanism flourished too. The [[Tang dynasty]] saw the influx of thousands of foreigners who came to live in Chinese commercial hub cities. Expatriates spilled in from all over Asia and beyond, with a bounty of people from Persia, Arabia, India, Korea, and Southeast and Central Asia. Chinese cities became bustling epicenters of commerce and trade, abundant in foreign residents and the plethora of cultural riches that they brought with them. A census taken in 742 AD showed that the foreign proportion of the registered population had massively increased from nearly a quarter in the early seventh century to nearly half by the mid seventh century, with an estimated 200,000 foreigners in residence in Canton alone.<ref>((Cite web |date=2022-03-30 |title=China's Tang Dynasty: A Cosmopolitan Golden Age |url=https://www.thecollector.com/tang-dynasty-golden-age-china/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=TheCollector |language=en))</ref> [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]] and [[Daoism]] were practiced undisturbed in China, as well as in Japan, where the three coexisted with [[Shinto]].

=== Pacifism ===
Contrary to the warlike civilizations of independent kingdoms, universal monarchies were pacifist. Each universal monarchy generated a kind of [[Pax Romana]] and preached the benefits of peace over the glory of war. Universal monarchs claimed to pacify rather than conquer. The Romans derived from the word "pax" (peace) the verb "pacare", meaning to pacify.<ref>Stefan Weinstock, ''Divus Julius'', Oxford University Press, 1971, p 267.</ref> The first Roman universal monarch, following his victory, established the Arc of Peace ([[Ara Pacis Augustae]]) instead of the arc of triumph.

No heroic epic is known from the civilizations of Egypt and China. Egyptian and Chinese heroes were sages and inventors.<ref>Max Ostrovsky, ''The Hyperbola of the World Order'', Lanham: University Press of America, 2007, p 25.</ref> Herodotus noted that the Egyptians "are not accustomed to pay any honors to heroes."<ref>''History'', 2:50, (London: Loeb Library, 1920), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/2a*.html</ref> "No epic narrative spanned past generations, no tale of destiny urged a moral on the living."<ref>[[Barry Kemp (Egyptologist)|Barry Kemp]], ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization'', London: Routledge, 1989, p 20.</ref> Universal monarchs preferred prosaic narrative. According to the Egyptian records, universal monarchy was the way to universal peace: "when the gods inclined to peace," they decided to "establish their Son... to be ruler of every land."<ref>''Ancient Records of Egypt'', vol 4/398&ndash;400, pp.&nbsp;198&ndash;200.</ref>

In China the [[Qin Shi Huang|first universal monarch]] of the post-[[Warring States period]]  "confiscated the weapons of the world, collected them together... and [at a great banquet] smelt them into bells and bell-racks, as well as twelve bronze statues..."<ref>[[Sima Qian]], 6:239.</ref> Peace became the feature of the Chinese world, as [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (c. 330 – 400 AD) noted in one of the earliest external accounts: "The Seres [Chinese] themselves live a peaceful life, forever unacquainted with arms and warfare; and since to gentle and quite folk ease is pleasurable, they are troublesome to none of their neighbors."<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, 23:6:64&ndash;68. (''Complete Works'', tr. John Rolfe, London: Loeb, 1971).</ref> In 1637, Jesuit [[Giulio Alenio]] reported that he was often asked by his Chinese friends: "If there are so many kings, how can you avoid wars?" It was a good question in the middle of the frightful [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>Cited in [[Charles Tilly]], ''Coercion, Capital and European States'', Cambridge University Press, 1990, p 128.</ref>

Due to its pacifism, the Inca universal monarchy was defeated by the Spaniards within "scarcely three hours," by a force outnumbered 1 to 45 and without a single Spaniard killed. The Azteca monarchy, which was not universal, stands in sharp contrast despite the same disadvantage in military technology. The last independent Mexica tlatoani, [[Cuauhtémoc]], held a fierce defense of [[Tenochtitlan]] for 80 days, forced [[Hernán Cortés]] to mobilize tens of thousands of Indian allies and impressed him with valor.<ref>[[William H. Prescott]], ''History of the Conquest of Mexico'', New York: Harper, 1843, vol 3, p 206.</ref>

=== Divinity ===
Generally, [[comparative historical research]] on monarchies finds that universal monarchs were more absolute and divine than the modern European [[Absolute monarchy|absolute kings]]. The ideologies of modern absolute monarchies  claimed the monarch to be subject to divine, not human, law. "But he was no ancient emperor; he was not the sole source of law; of coinage, weights and measures; of economic monopolies... He owned only his own estates."<ref>[[Michael Mann]], ''The Sources of Social Power'', Cambridge University Press, 1987, vol I, p 478.</ref> "In his person Augustus accumulated the pillars of power: armed forces, control of the elite, wealth and patronage of the public clientelae. That is why Augustus, perhaps more than Louis XIV, would have been entitled to say: L'etat, c'est moi."<ref>Paul J. Vanderbroeck, ''Popular Leadership and Collective Behavior in the Late Roman Republic, c. 80 – 50 BC'', Amsterdam: Brill, 1987, p 197.</ref>

The Egyptian and Inca kings were mummified and worshipped for generations as gods (chapters on Egypt and Inca above). The Egyptian royal tombs – [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] – is perhaps the best expression of the level of veneration. Notably, with the rise of [[Tenno|universal monarchs in Japan]], impressive [[Kofun|megalithic tombs]] covered their land. Egyptologists debate whether the Son of the Sun was above or below the gods; Sinologists and Japanologists agree that their Sons of Heaven were above the gods and similar to the status of [[God in Abrahamic religions]].<ref>[[Yuri Pines]], ''The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy'', New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012, p 58.</ref>

A divinity threshold was crossed the moment of universal conquest. Following the [[Qin's wars of unification|Qin universal conquest]] in 221 BC, the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] of the universal realm was titled "Huang" meaning 'august', and "Di", meaning 'Divine'. [[Sima Qian]] explicitly states the causal link between the universal conquest and divinity.<ref>''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', 5:218; 6:245, 275, (tr. [[Burton Watson]], New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp 123, 141, 162.</ref> The Inca ruler, with the establishment of his universal monarchy, changed his royal "Capac" title, somewhat equivalent of "Duke," for the divine name by which he was thereafter known to history, "Viracocha Inca."<ref>Burr Cartwfight Brundage, ''Empire of the Inca'', Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963, p 78.</ref>

Following another universal conquest, [[Alexander the Great]] broke with much of the Macedonian royal tradition, where kings were mortal like the rest of humans.<ref>[[Lily Ross Taylor]], ''The Divinity of the Roman Emperor'', Connecticut: University of Michigan Press, 1931, p 4.</ref><ref>Duncan Fishwick, ''The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire'', Leiden & New York: Brill, 1993, p 6.</ref> Alexander and his [[Diadochi|successors]] became divine and some added to their names ''Epiphanes'', meaning 'divine'.

[[Augustus]] is another word for "Divine," and Augustus' image reminds that of Jesus. The [[Calendar Inscription of Priene]] (9 BC) uses the term "gospel" referring to him and describes him as "Savior" and "God manifest." Augustus "had wiped away our sins"<ref>[[Horace]], ''[[Odes (Horace)]]'', 4:15, (London: Loeb Library, 1956).</ref> shortly before Jesus did it again. Augustus' less fortunate [[Julius Caesar|predecessor]], having [[Crossing the Rubicon|crossed the Rubicon]] toward the universal monarchy, became "Divus" and traced his origins to [[Venus]].<ref>Stefan Weinstock, ''Divus Julius'' Oxford University Press, 1971, p 267.</ref>

=== Monotheism ===
The rise of extremely absolute and divine personality on earth triggered a similar process in Heaven. Main gods rose to more universal and [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] status and on several occasions universal monarchies generated monotheism. [[Akhenaten]] undertook the earliest know [[Atenism|attempt]], albeit short-lived.<ref>[[Donald Redford]], "The Sun-disc in Akhenaten program: Its worship and antecedents," ''Journal of American Research Center in Egypt'', 13: (1976), pp.&nbsp;47&ndash;61.</ref><ref>[[Aidan Dodson]], ''Amarna Sunrise. Egypt from Golden Age to Age of Heresy'', New York: University of Cairo Press, 2014, p 204.</ref> The [[Great Hymn to the Aten]] is the earliest record in world history to proclaim God as "sole" beside whom there is "none". Beginning with [[Sargon II]], Assyrian scribes began to write the name of [[Ashur (god)]] with the ideogram for "whole heaven."<ref>[[Jack M. Sasson]], ''Civilizations of the Ancient Near East'', New York: Scribner, 1995, vol 3. p.&nbsp;1830.</ref> According to [[Simo Parpola]], the [[Neo-Assyrian empire]] developed a complete monotheism.<ref>Simo Parpola, "Monotheism in Ancient Assyria," ''One God Or Many? Concepts of Divinity in the Ancient World'', ed. Barbara Nevling Porter, Los Angeles: CDL Publishers, 2000, vol 1, pp.&nbsp;165&ndash;209. http://www.aina.org/articles/miaa.pdf</ref>

The Assyrian case is crucial regarding Judaism — the only ancient monotheism which is not a product of universal monarchy. Notably, the Jewish religion became monotheist in the Babylonian captivity.<ref>Robert Karl Gnuse, ''No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel'', Sheffield Academic Press, 1997, p 225.</ref> One hypothesis maintains that the Jewish priests adopted the local monotheism and replaced [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]] with [[Yahweh]]. The Assyrian monotheist concept of "(all) the gods" was translated into Hebrew as [[Elohim]], literally "(all) the gods." This explains the puzzle of [[Psalm 46]]:4&ndash;5 with God dwelling in his City on the river. There is no river in Jerusalem. The City of Assur was on the river.<ref>Parola 2000.</ref> "Yahweh's emergence as a major player on the divine scene mirrored those of... [[Marduk]] and Assur." The former, as Yahweh, had a temple without an image to express his monotheist nature.<ref>Michael Hundley, "The Making of Monotheism," ''Huffington Post'', 2017, https://www.academia.edu/34577234/The_Making_of_Monotheism</ref> Some scholars also supposed the influence of the Egyptian universal monarchy, particularly of the Great Hymn to the Aten on [[Psalm 104]].<ref>[[James Henry Breasted]], ''A History of the Ancient Egyptians'', Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, 2008, p.&nbsp;273.</ref><ref>[[Dominic Montserrat]], ''Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt''. London: Routledge, 2002, p.&nbsp;101.</ref><ref>[[Arthur Weigall]], ''The Life and Times of Akhnaton'', New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000, pp.&nbsp;155–156.</ref><ref>[[Mark S. Smith]], ''God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World'', Grand Rapids: William B Eerdmans Publishing, 2010, p.&nbsp;70.</ref>

Synchronously with Judaism, the Persian universal monarchy elaborated [[Zoroastrianism]] considered by most as monotheistic.<ref>[[James William Boyd]], "Is Zoroastrianism dualistic or monotheistic?" ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', 47/4: (1979), pp.&nbsp;557&ndash;588.</ref> Eventually, two most popular monotheist legacies of universal monarchies became Christianity and Islam.

=== Vision of history ===
For ancient Egypt, China, Japan and Inca, the beginning of history was marked by the emergence of universal monarchy. This event in terms of their traditions originated during the time these people saw as what we would call [[prehistory]]. Universal monarchies lacked linear, [[Teleology|teleological]], [[utopia]]n or [[progress]]ive vision of history of the Western kind. For them, the ideal state is not in an utopian future but a historic past and no further progress was even theoretically possible. All what was needed ever since the rise of universal monarchy was to maintain it, and if lost, restore it as soon as possible. Thus history acquired cyclical pattern.<ref>Redford 1986, p.&nbsp;132.</ref><ref>Pines 2000, pp.&nbsp;319, 324.</ref><ref>[[Derk Bodde]], ''China's First Unifier: A Study of the Qin Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssu, 280 – 208 BC'', University of Hong Kong Press, 1967, p 2.</ref>

German Sociologist Friedrich Tenbruck, criticizing the Western idea of progress, emphasized that China and Egypt remained at one particular stage of development for millennia. This stage was universal monarchy. The development of Egypt and China came to a halt once their empires "reached the limits of their natural habitat," that is, became universal.<ref>Friedrich Tenbruck, (1994). Translated by J. Bleicher. "Internal History of Society or Universal History?" ''Theory, Culture, Society'', (11): p.&nbsp;87.</ref>

Periods when monarchies were more universal – Shang, Zhou, Han and Tang dynasties in China, Gupta and Mughal dynasties in India, the [[Heian period|Heian Japan]], the Augustan and Antonine Rome – were remembered by posterity as "[[Golden Age (metaphor)|Golden Ages]]." [[Edward Gibbon]] described the [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty|Antonine age]] as best in human history.<ref>[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]], (London 1776), vol 1, ch 3.</ref> The [[Islamic Golden Age]] also begins during the universal [[Abbasid dynasty]]. The [[Spanish Golden Age|Spanish]], [[History of Portugal (1415–1578)|Portuguese]] and [[Victorian era|British Golden Ages]] similarly coincide with periods when their monarchies came closest to universal.<ref>[[Bernard Porter]], ''Britannia's Burden: The Political Evolution of Modern Britain 1851–1890'', London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1994, ch 3.</ref><ref>[[Eric Hobsbawn]], ''The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991''. Boston: Abacus, 1995, ch 9.</ref>

Seeing the ideal model in the past, most universal monarchies had a greater concern with history than their non-universal colleagues did. The difference is striking comparing the volumes of historical records of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, China and India, or Rome and the post-Roman Europe. Not always, but as a rule, the more monarchy is universal in space and lasting in time, the more history it writes.<ref>Ostrovsky 2007, pp.&nbsp;12&ndash;13.</ref>

Regarding future, universal monarchies are prominent in their optimism. They did not expect [[apocalypse]] or [[Yuga Cycle|cosmic recycling]], nor even lesser disasters like destructive warfare or imperial fall characteristic for Mesopotamian and Hebrew prophetic literature. Instead, they believed in eternal orderly existence. Those monarchies were deemed universal in both space and time. In Japan even dynasties were not supposed to rise and fall. [[Tenno|One dynasty]] was believed to ever last. Gods provided the Egyptian kings with "eternity without limits, infinity without bounds."<ref>''Ancient Egyptian Literature'', vol 1, p 230.</ref> A great culture of eternity evolved. The pyramids, mummies and [[Terracotta Army]] were designed to last forever.

== See also ==
* [[King of Kings]]
* [[World government]]
* [[Emperor at home, king abroad]]

== References ==
((reflist))

((DEFAULTSORT:Universal Monarchy))
[[Category:Monarchism]]
[[Category:Political ideologies]]
[[Category:Political culture]]
[[Category:World government]]

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