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((Short description|German noun meaning "people"))
((About|English-language usage of a German word|people with the surname|Volk (surname)|English word for populace|Folk (disambiguation)((!))Folk|other uses|Volk (disambiguation)))
((Italic title))
((more citations needed|date=February 2019))
[[Image:Reichstag Giebel2.jpg|thumb|''Dem Deutschen Volke'' (((lit|To the German People))), the dedication on the [[Reichstag building]] in [[Berlin]]]]
The German noun '''''Volk''''' (((IPA-de|fɔlk))) translates to [[:wikt:people|people]], 
both uncountable in the sense of  ''people'' as in a [[crowd]], and countable (plural ''Völker'') in the sense of ''[[People|a people]]'' as in an  [[ethnic group]] or [[nation]] (compare the [[English language|English]] term ''[[wikt:folk#Adjective|folk]]'').

Within an English-language context, the German word is of interest primarily for its use in [[German philosophy]], as in ''[[Volksseele]]'' ("national soul"), and in [[German nationalism]] – notably the derived adjective ''[[völkisch]]'' ("national, ethnic").

==Etymology==
((wiktionary|Volk|folk))
The term ''Volk'' in the medieval period ([[Middle High German]] ''volc'')
had the primary meaning of "large crowd, army", while the more general sense of "population" or "people" was expressed by ''diet'' (adjective ''[[Deutsch (word)|dietsch, deutsch]]'' "popular, of the people"). It was only in the early modern period that ''deutsch'' acquired the meaning of an ethnic self-designation. Beginning in 1512, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was
named ''Imperium Romanum Sacrum Nationis Germanicæ'', rendered in German as ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'', suggesting that Latin ''germanicus'' "German, Germanic" was now expressed by the adjective ''deutsch''.

''Volk'' is the [[cognate]] of English ''[[:wikt:folk|folk]]'' and also overlaps in the usage of the latter as in ''Volksmusik'' "[[folk music]]", ''Volksglaube'' "[[folk belief]]" etc.
In the 18th century, German ''Volk'' was mostly reserved for "crowd" or "mass of the population", while the concept of "a people" or "a nation" was now expressed by the Latinism ''Nation''. 
Use of ''Nation'' in this sense was replaced by ''Volk'' after 1800, explicitly in the context of emergent [[German nationalism]].

Compounds in which ''Volk-'' translates to "populace" or "nation" include  ''Volksentscheid'' ([[plebiscite]], literally "decision of/by the people")  ''Völkerbund'' ([[League of Nations]]). The somewhat obsolete meaning of the [[commoner|common people]], ''[[hoi polloi]]'', [[working class]] is visible in the brand name ''[[Volkswagen]]'' "people's car", historically a name chosen by the [[German Labour Front]] in 1937 for a car designed to be affordable to the "common man".

In contrast to German ''Volk'' being elevated to the sense of "nation" in the early 19th century, 
English ''folk'' came to be seen as inelegant at around the same time, being mostly replaced by the latinate ''people''.
It re-entered formal or academic English only through  the invention of the word ''folklore'', coined in 1846 by [[William Thoms|William J. Thoms]]   as an  Anglo-Saxonism. This word revived folk in a modern sense of "of the common people, whose culture is handed down orally", and opened up a flood of compound formations, e.g. ''folk art'' (1921), ''folk-hero'' (1899), ''folk-medicine'' (1898), ''folk-tale'' (1891), ''folk-song'' (1847), ''folk-music'' (1889), ''folk-dance'' (1912).

==German national identity==
[[Image:Ethnic map (1914).jpg|thumb|1914 ethnic map, after a German nation state had been established without the ethnic German areas of Austria]]
((Further|German tribes|German question|German unification|German nationalism))
In [[German philosophy]] of the late 18th and 19th centuries, ''[[Volksgeist]]'' is used in the sense of "national spirit", not necessarily in reference to the German nation, but still strongly correlated with the development of a German national identity in the wake of the dissolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

The [[völkisch movement]] originates in this time, proposing the formation of a German [[nation state]] as a solution to the "[[German Question]]".
[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] in his ''[[Addresses to the German Nation]]'', published still during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] from 1808 onwards, asked, in the eighth address, "What is a ''Volk,'' in the higher sense of the term, and what is love of the fatherland?,"
He answered that it could only be that "particular spiritual nature of the human environment out of which he himself, with all of his thought and action... has arisen, namely the people from which he is descended and among which he has been formed and grown into that which he is".<ref>[http://trans-int.blogspot.com/2005/04/ummah-and-das-volk-on-islamist-and.html Transatlantic Intelligencer: "The Ummah and das Volk: On the Islamist and "Völkisch" Ideologies "]: accessed 7 September 2010</ref>
The movement combined sentimental patriotic interest in [[German folklore]], [[local history]] and a "back-to-the-land" anti-urban populism with many parallels with  expressions of [[Romantic nationalism]] in other parts of Europe, such as the writings of [[William Morris]]. "In part this ideology was a revolt against modernity," Nicholls remarked.<ref>A. J. Nicholls, reviewing George L. Mosse, ''The Crisis in German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich'' in ''[[The English Historical Review]]'' '''82''' No. 325  (October 1967), p 860. Mosse was characterised as "the foremost historian of ''völkisch'' ideology" by Petteri Pietikäinen  2000:524 note 6.</ref>

Throughout much of the 19th century, it was not universally agreed that there was such a thing as a single "German nation" (''Volk''). 
The "Germans" (''die Deutschen'') were rather seen as the equivalent of what would now be called the [[Germanic peoples]], i.e. a large ethno-linguistic [[phylum]] comprising a number of peoples (such as the German [[stem duchy|"stems" or tribes]] of the [[Franks]] (or [[Franconians]]), [[Swabians]], [[Bavarians]], [[Thuringians]], [[Saxons]], etc.; also included into the term were the [[North Germanic peoples|Scandinavians]] and the [[Anglo-Saxons]], e.g. the Brothers' Grimm ''[[Deutsche Sagen]]'' of 1816&ndash;1818 which includes legends of Germanic antiquity as well as of German, Austrian and Swiss folklore.

In the wake of the [[Revolutions of 1848]], the [[Frankfurt Parliament]] attempted to create a national constitution for all German states but rivalry between Prussian and Austrian interests resulted in proponents of the parliament advocating a "Lesser German" solution (a monarchical German nation-state without Austria). The [[King of Prussia]], [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]], refused the offer and efforts to create a liberal German nation-state faltered and collapsed.
A division developed among German nationalists, with one group led by the Prussians that supported a "[[Lesser Germany]]" that excluded Austria and another group that supported a "[[Greater Germany]]" that included Austria. 
Prussia achieved hegemony over Germany in the "wars of unification": the [[Second Schleswig War]] (1864), the [[Austro-Prussian War]] (1866), which effectively established the separation of Austria from Germany, and the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870/1, after which the [[unification of Germany]] was finally achieved, by the fusion of the [[North German Confederation]] (dominated by [[Prussia]]) and the South or Central German states of [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]], [[Kingdom of Württemberg|Württemberg]], [[Grand Duchy of Baden|Baden]] and [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse]].

==Nazi era==
[[Adolf Hitler]] in ''[[Mein Kampf]]''  denounced usage of the word ''völkisch'' as he considered it too vague as to carry any recognizable meaning due to former over-use,((page needed|date=March 2018)) although he used it often, especially in connection with ethnic Germans or ''[[Volksdeutsche]]''.

During the years of the [[Third Reich]], the term ''Volk'' became heavily used in nationalistic political slogans,((citation needed|date=March 2018))<!--substantiate "became used", as the preceding section implies that this usage had been perfectly current since the time of Herder. The Nazis were nationalist, but they have no claim on the invention of nationalism. A separate Nazi section should not simply repeat concepts from 19th-century nationalism but should point out specific innovations due to Nazi authors--> 
particularly in slogans such as ''[[Volk ohne Raum]]''((snd)) "(a) people or race without space" or ''[[Völkischer Beobachter]]'' ("popular or racial observer"), an NSDAP party newspaper. Also the [[political slogan]] ''Ein Volk, ein [[Reich]], ein [[Führer]]'' ("One nation, one empire, one leader"); the compound word ''Herrenvolk'', translated as "[[master race]]"; the "[[Heinkel He 162|Volksjäger]]" jet fighter, translated as "people's [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]"; and the term ''[[Volksgemeinschaft]]'', translated as "people's community".

The term Volk, in the vision of Nazis,((who|date=March 2018))((year needed|date=March 2018)) had a broad set of meanings, and referred sometimes to the entirety of German nation and other times to the [[Nordic race]].<ref>Literature and Film in the Third Reich - Page 351
Karl-Heinz Schoeps - 2004 
In essence, Volk referred in that period to "the entirety of the German nation as a political, racial, cultural, and fated 'community by blood.'"((clarify|date=March 2018))
</ref>
In the writings of leading Nazi thinkers, such as [[Alfred Rosenberg]] and [[Hans F. K. Günther|Hans Günther]] several ''Völker'' or "peoples" made up a ''Rasse'' or "race", so these two terms did not always denote the same concept. ((citation needed|date=March 2018))((page needed|date=March 2018))

==After 1945==
Unlike the adjective ''[[völkisch]]'', which became associated with German nationalism,<ref>The proposal by right-wing politician [[Frauke Petry]] to normalize use of ''völkisch'' for "popular" or "of the people" was sufficient to make headlines, and for her to be accused of harbouring "fascist" tendencies in the left-wing press.
((cite news|
title="Völkisch" ist nicht irgendein Adjektiv
|url=http://www.zeit.de/kultur/2016-09/frauke-petry-afd-voelkisch-volk-begriff-geschichte/komplettansicht?print
|newspaper=Die Zeit
|date=11 September 2016
|last1=Biermann
|first1=Kai
))
((cite web|title=Frauke Petry Pleads to Use "Völkisch" in a Positive Way Again|url=https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article158049092/Petry-will-den-Begriff-voelkisch-positiv-besetzen.html|website=Welt|date=11 September 2016 |access-date=21 June 2017))</ref> 
the German noun ''Volk'' remains the unmarked term for "a people" or "nation"
(while its older meanings of "a crowd of people" or "commoners" are less current). 
The [[Reichstag building]] retains its dedication, inscribed in 1916, reading ''dem deutschen Volke'' ("to the German people").

While ''Volk'' suggests an ethnic group or nation, the term ''Bevölkerung'' is used in the sense of "populace, resident population". 
The term ''[[Volksdeutsche]]'' for "ethnic Germans" retains some usage but is increasingly replaced by ''Deutschstämmige'' ("[people] of German descent").

In composition, ''Volks-'' retains the meaning "of/for the common people", after the pattern of ''[[Volkswagen]]'', sometimes used humorously in advertising (as in ''Volks-Zahnbürste'' "people's toothbrush"<ref>((cite web|title=Bild-Zeitung – From Volks-Bibles to Volks-Toothbrushes|url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/medien/bild-zeitung-von-bibeln-bis-dessous-1.990292-2|website=Süddeutsche Zeitung|date=19 August 2010 |access-date=21 June 2017))</ref>)

"Wir sind das Volk!" ("We are the people!") was a chant used by the [[Monday demonstrations in East Germany|Monday demonstrators]] during the peaceful demonstrations of 1989/1990 to end the [[East Germany|GDR]] and bring down the [[Berlin Wall]]. The slogan meant that the "simple people" would no longer endure the dictatorship, and wanted to reform the political system of the GDR. It did not necessarily express support for the idea of a reunification. However, the slogan was also altered to "Wir sind ein Volk!" ("We are one people") during the course of the protests, indicating the ethnic meaning of ''Volk'', where the division of Germany was regarded as unjust because of the common ethnic identity of all Germans.

[[Image:PEGIDA Demo DRESDEN 25 Jan 2015 116139879.jpg|thumb|First Pegida protest in daytime, January 2015]]
In 2015 the slogan "Wir sind das Volk" became popular again among members of [[PEGIDA]] (a nationalist movement), and various groups that claimed to stand in the tradition of Monday Demonstrations. Here, however, the ethnic connotation of "Volk" quickly became obvious. While the slogan "Wir sind ein Volk" was no longer in use since the reunification, the slogan "Wir sind das Volk" was given a new meaning. Now the word "Wir" was used by right wing protesters to refer to themselves, in order to distinguish from migrants and so-called "[[Gutmensch|Gutmenschen]]", Germans that supported refugees. After Chancellor Angela Merkel decided to give shelter to a growing number of refugees, especially from Syria, in 2015, right wing groups as well as more modest movements, that were referred to by the media as "the concerned citizens", started to use the slogan. They wanted to indicate that, according to their beliefs, the ''Volk'' (meaning only ethnic ''Germans'') should have more rights((Example needed |s|date=December 2018)) than immigrants and especially refugees. The similarity to the National Socialist ''Volk'' conception was pointed out by various media.<ref>((cite web|title=Wir sind das Volk – The Call for Freedom Becomes a Slogan of Hate (German)|url=http://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/wir-sind-das-volk-vom-ruf-nach-freiheit-zur-hassparole.1005.de.html?dram:article_id=311714|website=Deutschland Funk|access-date=21 June 2017))</ref> The protesters also made references to the protests against the dictatorship of the GDR, since they regarded it as their right to decide whether the state should give shelter to refugees or not. This, however, is a constitutional right in Germany for "[p]ersons persecuted on political grounds" that can not be changed unless the constitution is changed with a two-thirds majority in both houses of the parliament; however, asylum seekers who enter "from a member state of the European Communities" already have no constitutional right to asylum.<ref>(( cite German law | url = https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/englisch_gg.html#p0099 | art = 16a |en = Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|language = English))</ref>

== Outside of German ==
((See also|Yamato people#History of usage|Zhonghua minzu))
[[File:Chinese Dream, South Lake Park, Panzhou, Guizhou, China, 1 November 2019.jpg|thumb|A "[[Chinese Dream]]" slogan reading "Prosperous of state, rejuvenation of ''Volk'', and happiness of the people" (国家富强; 民族振兴; 人民幸福) in the South Lake Park, Panzhou, Guizhou, China, November 2019]]

The term ''Volk'' was translated into ''kokumin'' ([[Kanji]]: 国民, lit: nation; people)<ref name="Roger Griffin">((cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_Fascism/aQFUAQAAQBAJ?hl=ja&gbpv=1&dq=%22kokumin%22+%22Volk%22&pg=PA153&printsec=frontcover |author1=[[Roger Griffin]] |title=The Nature of Fascism |date= 2013 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=153))</ref><ref name="Qing Cao">((citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gumEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22volk%22+%22kokumin%22&pg=PT53 |author1= Qing Cao |title=The Language of Nation-State Building in Late Qing China: A Case Study of the Xinmin Congbao and the Minbao, 1902-1910 |date= 2023 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=351|isbn= 978-1-000-83271-6 ))</ref> and ''minzoku'' (Kanji: 民族, lit: people; ethnic group) by [[Japan]] in the [[Meiji Era]]. (''Kokumin'' is used in a non-racial context, unlike ''minzoku''.)<ref name="Roger Griffin"/><ref name="Qing Cao"/><ref>((cite book |title=South Asia Bulletin: Volume 26, Issue 3 |date= 2006 |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |pages=351))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Gayle |first=Curtis Anderson |title=Marxist History and Postwar Japanese Nationalism |date=2003-08-29 |publisher=Routledge ))</ref> Throughout the period of the [[Empire of Japan]], these two words were used frequently, especially ''minzoku'' to indicate the superiority of the "[[Yamato people#History of usage|Yamato race]]". During the [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|Shōwa "statist" period]], the Japanese who opposed the war were called "anti-''kokumin''" (非国民; ''hikokumin'').<ref>((Cite book |author1=Ian Reader |author2=Esben Andreasen |author3=Finn Stefánsson  |first=Curtis Anderson |title=Japan's Pseudo-democracy |date=2003-08-29 |publisher=Japan Library |pages=107))</ref> These words are not often used in Japan today, but they are used by some right-wing [[conservative]] and [[Japanese nationalist]] politicians. [[Taro Aso]] has called Japan a "one race" or "one ''minzoku''".<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/10/18/national/aso-says-japan-is-nation-of-one-race/|title=Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race'|date=18 October 2005|via=Japan Times Online))</ref><ref>((cite web|url=https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASN1F67HDN1FTIPE00X.html|title=麻生太郎氏「日本は2千年、一つの民族」政府方針と矛盾|date=13 January 2020|via=[[The Asahi Shimbun]]))</ref>((NoteTag|民族 (Korean: 민족, Vietnamese: dân tộc) is sometimes translated as "race" (German: [[wikt:Volk|''Volk'']]) depending on the context, but is distinct from 人種 (Korean: 인종) or 種族 (Vietnamese: chủng tộc) which purely means "race" (German: [[wikt:Rasse|''Rasse'']]).<ref>((cite book |author1=Michael Weiner |title=Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity |quote=... jinshu (race) and minzoku (ethnicity; people; nation), Kada consistently reaffirms the biological basis of minzoku. |date= 2009 |publisher=Routledge |pages=2))</ref><ref>((cite book |author1=Clark W. Sorensen |author2=Donald Baker |title=The Journal of Korean Studies, Volume 18, Number 1 (Spring 2013) |quote=... injong (race) or minjok (ethnos) in the historical context. |date= 2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |pages=47))</ref><ref>((cite book |author1=Yoshikazu Shiobara |author2=Kohei Kawabata |author3=Joel Matthews |title=Cultural and Social Division in Contemporary Japan: Rethinking Discourses of Inclusion and Exclusion|quote=... jinshu (race)” were generally differentiated from “minzoku (ethnic group, national minority of an ethnic nation),” and thus, racism (jinshu shugi) and nationalism (minzoku shugi or kokumin shugi) have tended to be read as different ... |date= 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis))</ref>))

国民 and 民族 greatly influenced the [[nationalism]] (mainly [[romantic nationalism]]) of [[East Asia]]n countries.<ref name="sent_Racical_Thinking">((Cite web |title=Racial Thinking in Modern China: A Bridge to Ethnonationalism? |last=Olsson |first=Jojje |publisher=Taiwan Sentinel |date=10 January 2018 |access-date=9 March 2021 |url= https://sentinel.tw/racial-thinking-modern-china/))</ref> East Asia's "Nationalist Party" often describe it as 国民党 or 國民黨. (Republic of China's [[Kuomintang]] is a representative example.) The word 民族 is often used by nationalists in [[China]] ("[[zhonghua minzu]]"), [[Korea]] ("[[Korean ethnic nationalism|minjok]]"), and [[Vietnam]] ("[[Vietnamese nationalism|dân tộc]]").

The ''Volk''-based nationalism is deeply related to the [[nation-building]]s in modern Chinese, Japanese and [[Korean nationalism]].<ref>((cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Taiwans_multi_ethnische_Gesellschaft_und/2UHs9u6UyLsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22minzu%22+%22Volk%22&pg=PA207&printsec=frontcover |author1=Michael Rudolph |title=Taiwans multi-ethnische Gesellschaft und die Bewegung der Ureinwohner: Assimilation oder kulturelle Revitalisierung? |language=German |quote= Zwar hatte man sich bei der Referenz auf das 'Chinesische Volk' (zhonghua minzu) sowie auf ' ethnische Chinesen ' ( hanren minzu ) durchaus schon lange des japanisch / chinesischen Begriffs ' minzoku ' bzw. ' minzu ' ( = Volk , Nation , Volk ) bedient , allein hatte man es vermieden ... zwischen 'Volk (minzu) und 'Ethnie' (zuqun) im chinesischen Kontext darin bestehe, ... |date= 2003 |publisher=Lit |pages=207))</ref><ref>((cite book |url=https://www.google.co.jp/books/edition/Tyranny_of_the_Weak/23PRnGPxSd0C?hl=ja&gbpv=1&dq=%22minjok%22+%22Volk%22&pg=PT467&printsec=frontcover |author1=Charles K. Armstrong |title=Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992 |quote= ... (minjok, similar to the German Volk) ...|date= 18 June 2013 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]))</ref><ref name="sent_Racical_Thinking">((Cite web |title=Racial Thinking in Modern China: A Bridge to Ethnonationalism? |last=Olsson |first=Jojje |publisher=Taiwan Sentinel |date=10 January 2018 |access-date=9 March 2021 |url= https://sentinel.tw/racial-thinking-modern-china/))</ref><ref>((Cite book|date=2013|first=Henry H.|last=Em|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C&pg=PA77|title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea, Part 2|page=77|publisher=Duke University Press |quote=As noted earlier, the word ''minjok'' (read as ''minzoku'' in Japanese) was a neologism created in Meiji Japan. When Korean (and Chinese and Japanese) nationalists wrote in English in the first half of the twentieth century, the English word they generally utilized for minjok was 'race.'|isbn=978-0822353720))</ref><ref>((Cite web|first=Robert E. |last=Kelly|url=https://robertedwinkelly.com/2010/05/24/more-on-asian-multiculturalism-5-masters-theses-to-be-written/ |title=More on Asian Multiculturalism: 5 Masters Theses to be Written |quote= Northeast Asians (NEA – Chinese, Koreans, Japanese) strike me as quite nationalistic, and nationalism up here is still tied up in right-Hegelian, 19th century notions of blood and soil. In China, the Han race is the focus of the government’s newfound, post-communist nationalism. In Korea, it is only the racial unity of minjeok that has helped keep Korea independent all these centuries. In Japan, the Yamato race is so important that even ethnic Koreans living there for generations can’t get citizenship and there’s no immigration despite a contracting population. MC in NEA faces huge political opposition that the already existing multiculturalism of South and Southeast Asia (SEA) don’t face. |date=24 May 2010 |access-date=10 February 2024))</ref> The term "zhonghua minzu" ("中华民族") is a very important concept in explaining mainland [[Chinese nationalist]].<ref>((Cite web |title=Opinion: Is President Xi Jinping's Chinese dream fantasy or reality? – CNN |last1=Xie |first1=Tao |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=14 March 2014 |access-date=9 March 2021 |url= https://www.cnn.com/2014/03/14/world/asia/chinese-dream-anniversary-xi-jinping-president))</ref><ref>((Cite web |title=What Xi Jinping Wants |last=Allison |first=Graham |publisher=[[The Atlantic]] |date=31 May 2017 |access-date=9 March 2021 |url= https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/05/what-china-wants/528561/))</ref> "Zhonghua minzu" is also appears in [[March of the Volunteers]], the official [[national anthem]] of China. The term "minjok" ("民族") was reflected in [[South Korea]]'s [[Pledge of Allegiance (South Korea)|Pledge of Allegance]] before 2007.

==See also==
((wiktionary|volk))
((col div|colwidth=20em))
* [[Volcae#Name|Volcae]]
* [[Völkisch nationalism]]
* [[Populus]]
* [[Pueblo]]
* [[People]]
* [[Þeod]]
* [[Volksdeutsche]]
* [[Johann Gottfried Herder]]
* [[Volksgeist]]
* [[Volkshalle]]
* [[Volksmusik]]
* [[Volkshochschule]]
* [[Volkssturm]]
* [[Volkswagen]]
* [[Dutch language#Etymology of the word .22Dutch.22|Dutch]]
* [[Folk music]]
((Div col end))

== Notes ==
((NoteFoot))

==References==
'''Notes'''
((Reflist))

'''Bibliography'''
* Henning Eichberg (2004), ''The People of Democracy. Understanding Self-Determination on the Basis of Body and Movement''. (= Movement Studies. 5) Århus: Klim (Theory of folk, people, and civil society with Scandinavian background) 
* [[Emerich K. Francis]] (1965) ''Ethnos und Demos. Soziologische Beiträge zur Volkstheorie''. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot (classical German-American sociology of folk, ethnos and demos)
* Emerich K. Francis (1976) ''Interethnic Relations. An Essay in Sociological Theory''. New York u.a.: Elsevier.
* Raphael Samuel (1981) (ed.), ''People's History and Socialist Theory''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

((Authority control))

[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic mysticism]]
[[Category:German nationalism]]
[[Category:Romantic nationalism]]
[[Category:German words and phrases]]

[[de:Volk]]

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