History
Origins
Oral histories claim that, before becoming a kingdom, the area of Waalo was ruled by a patchwork of Lamanes, a Serer title meaning the original owner of the land.[1] Etymological evidence suggests that the area was ruled by the Jaa'ogo dynasty of Takrur.[2]: 39
Founding
The exact founding date of Waalo is debated by historians, but is associated with the rule of the first king, the semi-legendary Ndiadiane Ndiaye, in the 13th or 14th century.[3][4][2]: 57 Ndiaye, originally a Fula from Takrur, united the Lamanes and ruled Waalo for 16 years as an arbiter or judge rather than king before, according to some oral accounts, being driven out by his half brother Barka Bo, or Barka Mbodj. After this, Ndiaye took control of Jolof and founded the Jolof Empire.[2]: 45 [1] Barka Mbodj was the first ruler to use the royal title 'Brak'.[5] Ndiaye eventually made Waalo a vassal.[6]: 198
Europeans first appeared off the coast of Waalo in the 15th century, and soon began trading. This caused a significant shift in economic power away from the Jolof heartland towards coastal vassals such as Waalo and Cayor. Buumi Jelen, a member of the royal family, may have established his own control over Waalo during this period, and is credited with creating a system of alkaldes who served as customs collectors for the Buurba Jolof. He later attempted to ally with the Portuguese to take power, but was killed by his erstwhile allies in a dispute.[2]: 150
The Jolof empire broke up in the aftermath of the battle of Danki in 1549, though the Brak continued to pay symbolic tribute to the Bourba Jolof until 1715.[7]: 134
The French and the Desert
In 1638, the French established the first permanent European trading settlement at the mouth of the Senegal River, moving to the site of Saint-Louis in 1659 while facing consistent military and political pressure from the Brak.[7]: 116 The French presence would have a decisive effect on the rest of the history of Waalo.
Partly in response to the shift in trade away from Berber tribes to the French, Nasr ad-Din, a Berber Marabout, launched the Char Bouba War or the Marabout War, overthrowing the ruling aristocracy of Waalo (among other Senegal river kingdoms) in an attempt to establish an Islamic theocracy. Upon his death in 1674, however, his movement collapsed and the old hierarchies, aligned with Arab Hassan tribes north of the river and vigorously supported by the French, re-asserted themselves.[6]: 169 [7]: 148–50
During this same period, Moroccan forces came south to the Senegal river, forcing the Brak to move the capital from Ngurbel to the south bank and permanently breaking the kingdom's control on the north side.[8]: 40
A Regional Power
In another attempt to further strengthen their economic position in the Senegal valley, in 1724 the French allied with Maalixuri, the lord of Bethio, to pressure the Brak Yerim Mbyanik and the Emirate of Trarza into concessions. His attempt at secession from Waalo failed when the French company stopped their support. By 1734 Yerim Mbyanik had the most powerful army in the region.[9]: 280 His rule and that of his two successors, Njaam Aram Bakar and Naatago Aram, was the apogee of Waalo-Waalo power.
Through the middle decades of the 18th century, Waalo exerted hegemony over the entire Senegal estuary and dominated Cayor as well. When the English took Saint-Louis in 1758 they found that the Brak had total control over river trade. Naatago repeatedly demanded increases in customs payments and slave prices, and blockaded the island when necessary.[9]: 281 In 1762 he appropriated payments from Cayor intended for Saint-Louis, and two years later invaded.[8]: 42
Decline
In 1765 the Damel of Cayor counterattacked, armed with English guns, and soundly defeated the Waalo-Waalo.[8]: 42 After Naatago's death in 1766 a long civil war broke out, with the Moors constantly intervening and raiding. In 1775 the English took more than 8000 slaves from Waalo in less than six months.[9]: 281
With recurring civil war and frequent foreign meddling in succession disputes, Waalo's power declined progressively in favor of the Moorish Emirate of Trarza.[7]: 195–99
In the 1820s the marabout of Koki Ndiaga Issa, who had amassed significant political power in Cayor, was driven out by the damel. His forces, led by general Dille Thiam, took control of Waalo instead. The French intervened however, and killed Thiam.[10]
To stop the cripplying Moorish raids and present a unified front against the French, the Lingeer Njembot Mbodj married the Emir of Trarza in 1833. Faced with an alliance that could threaten the survival of the colony, Saint Louis attacked Waalo, deepening the long-running crisis. Njembot Mbodj was succeeded by her sister Ndate Yalle in 1847, but the French finally conquered the kingdom in 1855.[11][7]: 284–9
Society
Government
The royal capital of Waalo was first Ndiourbel (Guribel) on the north bank of the Senegal River (in modern Mauritania), then Ndiangué on the south bank of the river. The capital was moved to Nder on the west shore of the Lac de Guiers.
Waalo had a complicated political and social system, which has a continuing influence on Wolof culture in Senegal today, especially its highly formalized and rigid caste system. The kingdom was indirectly hereditary, ruled by three matrilineal families: the Logar, the Tedyek, and the Joos, all from different ethnic backgrounds. The Joos were of Serer origin. This Serer matriclan was established in Waalo by Lingeer Ndoye Demba of Sine. Her grandmother Lingeer Fatim Beye is the matriarch and early ancestor of this dynasty. These matrilineal families engaged in constant dynastic struggles to become "Brak" or king of Waalo, as well as warring with Waalo's neighbors. The royal title "Lingeer" means queen or royal princess, used by the Serer and Wolof. Several Lingeer, notably Njembot Mbodj and Ndaté Yalla Mbodj ruled Waalo in their own right or as regents.[12]
The Brak ruled with a kind of legislature, the Seb Ak Baor, that consisted of three great electors who selected the next king. Their titles come from Pulaar terms that initially meant 'masters of initiation', and originate from the period before Ndiadiane Ndiaye when Takrur dominated the area.[2]: 39 There was also a complicated hierarchy of officials and dignitaries. Women had high positions and figured prominently in the political and military history of Waalo.
Provinces were ruled by semi-independent Kangam, such as the Bethio. Shifting allegiances between these powerful nobles, the Brak, other kingdoms, and the French of Saint-Louis led to a series of civil wars.[7]: 189
Religion
Waalo had its own traditional African religion. Islam was initially the province of the elite, but in the aftermath of Marabout War the ruling class increasingly rejected it while it become more and more widespread among the ruled. The Brak himself converted only in the 19th century.[7]: 157
Economy
Waalo played an integral role in the slave trade in the Senegal river valley, with most captives coming from regions upriver, often captured in war or slaving raids. Other trade goods included gum arabic, leather, and ivory, as well as the foodstuffs, primarily millet upon which Saint-Louis depended.[7]: 120–5
Waalo was paid fees for every boatload of gum arabic or slaves that was shipped on the river, in return for its "protection" of the trade.[7]: 127
