Indigenous peoples of Australia - terminology sources[edit]
[Lead paragraph]
This article gives an overview of the topic by summarising the recommendations or style guides offered by a number of reputable sources.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have been included in the 5-yearly census since 1971.[3]
Australian Bureau of Statistics' definition of Indigenous:
"The term Indigenous is used in this publication to refer to Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. All ABS Indigenous population statistics are based on responses to the ABS standard question for Indigenous identification, which is used in self-enumerated collections. The same Census question has been used to determine Indigenous status (but not its component peoples) since the 1981 Census."[3]
Since 1996, the person has been asked whether they are of either Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, both or none.[3]
Be careful of the word "black", which depends on context.
Wherever possible, use a specific rather then general term, i.e. by people/nation or language group (such as Yuin, Kaurna or Western Arrernte), unless a person's self-identification is a general term such as "Aboriginal". As far as possible, use a term based on the basis of self-identification by individuals and/or immediate families.
"Aboriginal" is the most accepted general term when addressing a national audience; however, "Indigenous Australian"[5] used in a national sense can be used for "Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander", or either group singularly. (Suggested shorter alternatives are Aboriginal groups, Indigenous communities, etc.; don't use regional descriptors (e.g. Murri, Koori) unless a stated preference. Torres Strait Islanders should not be described as Aboriginal.[6])
"Aboriginal Australian" should be used as the noun and "Aboriginal" as the adjective. Do NOT use the word "Aborigine", which many Indigenous Australians find offensive.
Avoid language and images which perpetuate negative stereotypes of Indigenous Australians and their culture.
ACTOSS (ACT Council of Social Services)
What may have seemed acceptable terminology in the past, can be considered extremely offensive today, and preferences can vary across Australia for individuals, communities and agencies.[2]
‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander’ (adjective) is a term extensively used, and has wide acceptance throughout Australia when referring to Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders, and related topics.
‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ (plural; can use "and/or") is a preferred term used by some, to refer to the many Aboriginal groups and Torres Strait Islander groups within Australia. This can also be applied when referring to other topics such as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander cultures. By doing so, you are referencing two cultures rather than a joint ‘culture’.
'Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander person’ is a term used when referring to a person of both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent.
‘Indigenous’ (capitalised, adjective) is a term extensively used throughout Australia when referring to the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia, and related topics. Be aware that some Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples are dissatisfied with the term ‘Indigenous’. Reasons may include: It can detract from the preferred identity of the individual, or group of people; although the term is used for inclusiveness, Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders are dissimilar in many ways, such as their identity, culture, traditions, language, beliefs, ethnicity, issues, protocols, continuity of existence, and history before and after the settlement of other peoples; it is a generic term and does not adequately describe Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples; the term is merely used for convenience, to alleviate repeating ‘Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander’. Similarly, "Indigenous Australians".
‘Aboriginal’ (adjective, capitalised) is extensively used and widely accepted throughout Australia when referring to Aboriginal peoples and topics. Aboriginal peoples are the first peoples of mainland Australia and many of its islands such as Tasmania, Groote Eylandt, Hinchinbrook Island and Fraser Island.
"Aboriginal peoples" to refer to the man groups (up to 500 before colonisation).
"Aboriginal Australians" is generally acceptable, although this varies.
Better to rephrase than use "non-Aboriginal", if possible.
"Aborigine" or "aborigine" has historical negative connotations, so best avoided; use only when quoting directly.
Don't use "part-Aboriginal" or "half-Aboriginal". If an individual identifies of being of multiple ethnic origins, it is better to say, e.g. "Tom is of both Aboriginal and South Sea Islander descent".
"Torres Strait Islander" - for use when the topic concerns only this group. Do not abbreviate as "TSI" or "Islander".
"First Australians", ‘Australia’s First Peoples’ and ‘First Nations Australia’ (all capitalised) are terms growing in acceptance. The National Congress of Australia’s First Peoples and the First Nations Australia Writers Network are two organisations which have embraced these terms. First Australians was the name of an historical TV documentary made by Rachel Perkins and Blackfella Films, aired on SBS in 2008.
"First Nations" or ‘First Peoples’ (capitalised) can refer to the peoples or nations of people who were there from the beginning, prior to the settlement of other peoples or nations; however the terms are generic; the term ‘First Nations’ is also used in Canada when referring to descendants of the original inhabitants of Canada such as the Mohawk and Cree peoples.
When specifically referring to Aboriginal peoples or topics, your communications should reflect this, e.g. Aboriginal art, rather than Indigenous art, or Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander art.
Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people do not like to be referred to as "Indigenous", the term being considered too generic.
Aboriginal people may refer to themselves e.g. as Koori, Murri or Nunga, dependent on the greater region they are connected to; some are also able to link to their language groups and traditional country (a specific geographic location), for example, Gunditjamara people of western Victoria; Gadigal people of the Eora nation from Sydney, and the Yawuru people from Broome, Western Australia.
Other descriptors relating to type of country of origin are also sometimes used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, such as "saltwater people" for coastal peoples, or "freshwater", "rainforest", "desert" or "spinifex people" for people who live in that ecological environment. However, apart from the latter, these terms are generally not recommended for use in Wikipedia except when quoting.
Torres Strait Islander people prefer to use the name of their home island to identify themselves to outsiders, even when born and raised in mainland Australia, such as Saibai for someone from Saibai Island, or Meriam for someone from Mer.
Creative Spirits website
This website contains general guidance and citations from other sources. It quotes the Aboriginal-owned newspaper Koori Mail, which tries to be as specific as possible when writing about Aboriginal people, recommending the following hierarchy in descending order of preference:[8]
The area the person comes from, e.g. Murri people.
Aboriginal if they come from mainland Australia, Torres Strait Islander if they're from there.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander to be generic.
According to some respected academics, even terms such as "urban", "traditional" or "of Indigenous descent" may be seen as racist when defining or categorising Aboriginal people.[8]
Refer to an Aboriginal person by their language or cultural group if you know it, i.e. use "a Wurundjeri elder" rather than "an Aboriginal woman" (but do not assume that all older Indigenous people are "elders").
"To refer to the entire Indigenous community, or if you don't know someone's clan, use terms like 'Aboriginal Australians', 'Indigenous Australians', 'Aboriginal people', or 'First Australians'. Use 'Aboriginal' or 'Indigenous' as adjectives."
Terms like Koori and Nyoongar refer to a group of specific Indigenous Australians who identify with a specific area and language, and if this terminology is used, respect this distinction.
"Some Aboriginal people refer to themselves as 'blacks' or 'Aborigines', but others consider these terms offensive. If you are not an Indigenous Australian, avoid them."
An "Aboriginal person" is a person who: is of Aboriginal descent; identifies as an Aboriginal person; andis accepted as an Aboriginal person by the community in which they live.
Avoid using the term "Aborigine(s)" as it has negative connotations with many Aboriginal people.
Reference to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people should be spelt out where necessary.
Be careful not to frame Aboriginal people as being separate from Australian people.
"Aboriginal people" is a collective name for the original people of Australia and their descendants, and does not emphasise the diversity of languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. By adding an "s" to "people", you are emphasising this diversity. "Aboriginal people" can also be used to refer to more than one Aboriginal person. Both "Aboriginal people" and "Aboriginal peoples" are acceptable depending on the context.
Within NSW Health, the term "Aboriginal" is generally used in preference to "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander", in recognition that Aboriginal people are the original inhabitants of NSW.
"First people" or "First Australians" are collective names for the original people of Australia and their descendants, and are used to emphasise that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people lived on this continent prior to European invasion. Both "First people" and "First Australians" are acceptable. Use these terms to emphasise that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people lived on this continent before the European invasion.
Many Aboriginal people from other areas of Australia reside within NSW and still use their traditional names. Some examples of these terms are: Goori – usually used by Aboriginal people in northern NSW coastal regions; Koori – usually used by Aboriginal people in parts of NSW and Victoria; Murri – usually used by Aboriginal people in north-west NSW and Queensland; Nunga – usually used by Aboriginal people in South Australia; Noongar – usually used by Aboriginal people in south-west Western Australia. Aboriginal people in areas of Central Australia and Northern Territory still identify themselves by their individual tribal groups. Research may be undertaken to seek the correct term if necessary. (Always check with the local Aboriginal community about using this type of terminology. There are many Aboriginal language groups within the above-mentioned areas and the use of such terms can be restrictive.)
The following terminology is inappropriate or dated, and must be avoided at all times as it is offensive: ATSI, Native, Mixed blood, Half-caste, Quarter-caste, Full-blood, Part-Aboriginal, 25%, 50% Aboriginal.
Queensland Health
According to s51 (25) of the High Court of Australia (1983): "An Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander person is a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (person) and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives.
The term "Aboriginal" is not inclusive of Torres Strait Islander people nor vice versa. Queensland Health’s preference is for "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander" to be used when referring collectively to Indigenous Australians.
Although it is grammatically correct, the term "Aborigine(s)" has negative connotations and should be avoided. "Aboriginal" should be used as an adjective, not as a noun.
A Torres Strait Islander person is a descendant from one of the Torres Strait Islands located to the north of mainland Queensland. "Torres Strait Islander" should be used as an adjective, not as a noun (i.e. use "Torres Strait Islander people").
Correct use of "Indigenous" As "indigenous" is not specific, some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people feel the term diminishes their identity and should be avoided; however, in certain circumstances "Indigenous" with capitalisation is acceptable. Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Queenslander (preferable) Indigenous Queenslander (acceptable)
QUT
Queensland University of Technology guidelines.[11][12]
Reconciliation Australia – Narragunnawali
"Narragunnawali supports all schools and early learning services in Australia to develop environments that foster a high level of knowledge and pride in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and contributions... Narragunnawali is a program of Reconciliation Australia. Reconciliation Australia is an independent, national not-for-profit organisation promoting reconciliation by building stronger relationships, respect and trust between the wider Australian community and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples."[13]
Summary of guidelines:[14]
It is usually best practice to use "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander" when referring generally to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
"Aboriginal" (and less commonly accepted variants, e.g. "Aboriginals" or "Aborigines") alone is not inclusive of the diversity of cultures and identities across Australia, for which reason it should be accompanied by "peoples" in the plural.
Reference to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples should be spelt out where the intention is to refer to all First Peoples of Australia.
Terms such as "First Peoples" or "First Nations" are also acceptable, and encompass the diversity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and identities.
Don't abbreviate "Aboriginal" or "Torres Strait Islander", or to use the acronym "ATSI". *Assimilationist terms such as "full-blood," "half-caste" and "quarter-caste" are extremely offensive and should never be used.
In some parts of the country, the term "Indigenous" can be considered offensive, because it has scientific connotations, used historically to describe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as part of the "flora/fauna" rather than the human population of Australia, and can be seen as a homogenising label for highly diverse identities. Exceptions in some situations, e.g.:
If a person prefers and/or has approved the word "Indigenous" to be used;
If an organisation has appropriately referred to a program or job title (e.g. “Indigenous Programs Unit” or “Indigenous Programs Manager”);
If the word "Indigenous" has been appropriately embedded into an organisational (Federal Government, State Government and Local Government) policy.
If referring to non-Indigenous Australians (terms such as "other Australians" or "the wider community" are also acceptable).
When written, Aboriginal and Indigenous should begin with capital letters, and "Aboriginal" should never be abbreviated. Torres Strait Islander should be used in full and not shortened to "TSI".[4]
ACTOSS (ACT Council of Social Services)
It is only acceptable to use abbreviations in your communications when they form part of a web address or an organisation (e.g. AIATSIS, NAIDOC, www.atsi.org.au).
AIATSIS
When used in Australia, the words Indigenous, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander are capitalised. Do not use "ATSI" or "TSI".[7]
Always spell "Torres Strait Islanders" out in full; do not use "TSI", "islanders" or "natives" without good reason.[15]
Always spell out "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders"; do not use the acronym "ATSI"
Always capitalise "Indigenous" and "Aboriginal" when referring to Indigenous Australians, but not when referring generically to the original inhabitants of other continents.
Do not use ‘Aboriginal’ as a noun – it should only be used as an adjective.
If using the term ‘indigenous’, always capitalise ‘I’ when referring to Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
Never abbreviate "Aboriginal" or "Torres Strait Islanders".
Queensland Health
"Aboriginal always be capitalised when referring to Aboriginal Australians, and Torres Strait Islander is always capitalised.
Do not abbreviate "Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander", or Torres Straight Islander (which should always be followed by "people") in any way (e.g. TSI or Islander).
The lowercase word "indigenous" is used when referring to people of any region or country; therefore, when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, it is highly recommended that it is capitalised.
The following terms related to some Aboriginal Australian and some Torres Strait Islander cultures also need care.[10]
A "clan" is a local descent group, larger than a family but based on family links through a common ancestry. For example, the Yuin nation in south eastern NSW has several clans within it. The term "clan" has an additional and different meaning that comes from non-Aboriginal societies. For this reason, the term should be used with care, and only with local community guidance.
The term "community" is generally acceptable to refer to Aboriginal people living within a particular geographical location. However, keep in mind the diversity of Aboriginal people within that "community". If you wish to emphasise the diversity of communities within the one geographical location, use "communities" in the plural form.
"Country" is a term used to describe an area of land, river and sea that is the traditional land of each Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language group of community. It has a much broader meaning than its meaning in English, incorporating an integral sense of belonging and their place of Dreaming. Use "country" to refer to a particular, culturally defined area of land, such as "Wiradjuri country" or "Dunghutti country".
"Culture" is defined as "accepted and traditionally patterned ways of behaving". It is a "common understanding shared by the members of a group or community. It includes land, beliefs and spirituality, language, ways of living and working, artistic expression, relationships and identity". Traditionally, and until today, Aboriginal cultures were and are many and varied. There is no one homogenous Aboriginal culture. Aboriginal cultures have evolved over time, and modern Aboriginal cultures are different from traditional Aboriginal cultures.
"Elder": The traditional meaning of an Aboriginal Elder is someone who has gained recognition within their community as a custodian of knowledge and lore, and who has permission to disclose cultural knowledge and beliefs. Age alone does not necessarily mean that one is a recognised Elder.
"Mob" is generally used by Aboriginal people and between Aboriginal people. Therefore, it may not be appropriate for non-Aboriginal people to use this term.
"Nation" refers to a culturally distinct group of people associated with a particular, culturally defined area of land or country. Each nation has boundaries that cannot be changed, and language is tied to that nation and its country. e.g. The Gumbayngirr nation is located around the Nambucca Heads area.
A "traditional owner/custodian(s)" is an Aboriginal person or group of Aboriginal people directly descended from the original Aboriginal inhabitants of a culturally defined area of land or country, and has a cultural association with this country that derives from the traditions, observances, customs, beliefs or history of the original Aboriginal inhabitants of the area. e.g. In 1998, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service handed back Mutawintji National Park to its traditional owners.
"Tribe" and kinship. Like "nation", a "tribe" refers to a culturally distinct group of people associated with a particular, culturally defined area of land or country. Be aware that "tribe" has a specific meaning derived from non-Aboriginal societies, and therefore may not necessarily be applicable to Aboriginal culture. Some Aboriginal people use the term and such usage should be respected. If unsure ask the local community for guidance.
Other terms are discussed: assimilation; invasion / colonisation; Native Title; mission; Protection Policy; self-determination; Stolen Generations; Women"s Business/ Men"s Business.
Loaded words: "discovered", "settled", Aboriginal people were "nomadic/nomads".
Creative Spirits website
The site also refers to certain "toxic labels".[8]
It also makes suggestions about a variety of other terms, such as:[8]
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. "Partnering with Indigenous Peoples: Experiences and Practices"(PDF). Estimated date c.2012. Self-identification is a fundamental criterion as enshrined in ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, 1989 and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (article 33).
Canada
The first paragraph of Indigenous peoples in Canada (referenced here as the country most like the Australian experience) as of 17 July 2020[update] says:
Indigenous peoples of Canada[18] (also known as Aboriginal Canadians, Native Canadians, or First Peoples)[19] are the Indigenous peoples[Note 2] within the boundaries of Canada. They comprise the First Nations,[22]Inuit[23] and Métis.[24] Although "Indian" is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada, and some consider them to be pejorative.[25][19] "Aboriginal" as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act, 1982, though in some circles that word is also falling into disfavour.[26][21]
This section is intended to cover notes relating to how librarians in Australia have classified and/or referred to the topic, by means of controlled vocabularies of various types, including authority control records.
SCIS (Schools Catalogue Information Service) "was created to provide schools with access to a database of consistent catalogue records created according to agreed national standards", and it "maintain[s] SCIS Subject Headings, a controlled list of subject headings particularly appropriate to the needs of schools, and SCIS Authority Files, a downloadable file of all approved SCIS Subject and Name Headings, which can be imported directly into schools’ library management systems".[27] As a service primarily for Australian and New Zealand schools, some of its cataloguing standards are unique, in that they recognise the Māori and Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in their database. The SCIS subject headings use the terms Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginal peoples, as well as the names and languages of every major grouping of Australian Aboriginal peoples.[28]
The Melbourne University library catalogue uses the subject heading Aboriginal Australians and a number of related or narrower terms;[29]Torres Strait Islanders and related search terms;[30] but not Indigenous Australians. In relation to the latter, it does include terms such as Indigenous children -- Australia,[31] and Indigenous peoples -- Australia.[32]
Libraries Australia uses Aboriginal Australian and Aboriginal Australians as preferred headings for topics relating to Aboriginal peoples of Australia (or more specific terms, where applicable).[33]
AIATSIS Subject guide to Ethical Protocols for Working with Indigenous Australians - a library resource to help search their collections.[34]
^Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were apparently uninhabited at the time of settlement, although the descendants of the Cocos Malays who were brought to the islands by the first settler, Alexander Hare, are as of 2019[update] seeking recognition from the Australian Federal Government to be acknowledged as Indigenous Australians.[1]
^Note: Blue links have been provided partly to check the linked-to term in Wikipedia and where necessary add info related to Aboriginal or Indigenous Australians.
SAHMRI Indigenous Collective (28 February 2018). "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Protocols Document"(PDF) (1.1 ed.). South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI). (p.4: "The SAHMRI Indigenous Collective have developed these Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Protocols to guide and support SAHMRI in working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities nationally.) – Useful general guidance, with particular reference to terminology pp.17–18. "When writing: in documents relating to the South Australian population, the Aboriginal Health Council of South Australia recommend, ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and hereafter Aboriginal people’. For populations across Australia, ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’. For global populations (including or excluding Australia), ‘Indigenous people’ is appropriate to use." (Not always rigidly applied.)
"1200.0.55.008". Indigenous Status Standard , 2014, Version 1.5. 8 October 2014. "The standard term for this variable is 'Indigenous Status', [which] is an acceptable term for use in data collection only, and only in terms of identifying a characteristic of a person. A person's Indigenous status is determined by their response to the ABS Standard Indigenous Question: "Are you of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin?" for which categories are: No; Yes, Aboriginal; or Yes, Torres Strait Islander. This question also allows respondents to report that they are both 'Aboriginal' and 'Torres Strait Islander' if that is how they identify... The term 'Indigenous' is not a specific descriptor. Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people feel the term diminishes their identity and/or fails to recognise the cultural diversity that exists within the collective population. Use of ‘Indigenous’ should therefore be avoided."
"Australian Aboriginal peoples - History, Facts, & Culture". Encyclopedia Britannica. 19 January 2012. – Encyclopaedia Britannica, in particular the link at the end of the first section: "(For a discussion of the names given to the Indigenous peoples of Australia, see Researcher’s Note: Britannica usage standards: Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia.)"
Pearson, Luke (10 November 2015). "Why We Will Never Find The 'Most Appropriate' Term To Refer To All Indigenous Australians". IndigenousX. General discussion for interest – "'Indigenous"'... emerge[d] seemingly out of nowhere in the 90s there was and is some notable opposition to this term. The earlier arguments about being an introduced term still apply, and many believe that it was introduced by government without consultation and oppose it even more for that reason. Others like it as it includes Torres Strait Islander peoples as well, and helped get government departments to stop using ATSI....; there are fors and againsts for all terms, and there is no consensus on the ‘one’ term that we can all agree on, and there probably never will be".
"First Australians - Sections". Reconciliation Australia. General website, mostly referring to "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples".