Group of Zeybeks
Two Zeybeks in their attire 1873 a.d.

Zeybeks, sometimes spelled as Zeibeks (Greek: Ζεϊμπέκοι Zeibekoi; Ottoman Turkish: زیبك, romanized: zeybek), were irregular militia and guerrilla fighters living in West Anatolia from late 17th to early 20th centuries.

History

The origins of Zeybeks are debated with most Turkish sources supporting that they are Turkic.[1][2] One Turkish source states the Zeybeks first appeared in the 13th century and were Turkomans who settled into the Aegean Region.[3] Another Turkish source links them to the Turkmen-Celali rebels in the 16th century,[4] while a different Turkish writer claims that Zeybeks were light infantry troops made of Turkmen tribes loyal to the Seljuks.[5] According to Aşıkpaşazade, an Ottoman Turkish Historian from the 15th century, Zeybeks were Muslim Gazis protecting the borders in Anatolia.[2] In the Turkish society the Zeybeks and Yörüks are seen as the same people. Many famous Zeybeks like Yörük Ali Efe and Demirci Mehmet Efe belonged to Yörük tribes.[2] Ottoman Turkish author Osman Hamdi Bey supports that they were descendants of the Trallians and unrelated to the Turks.[6] In addition, information about the similarities of the Pecheneg costume with the Zeybek costume, as determined in the Byzantine chronicles, Claude Cahen explained this case in his article titled Battle of Manzikert According to İslamic Resources, with the statements that the clothes of the paid Pecheneg soldiers under the command of Alyatte, one of the Byzantine commanders, could not be distinguished from their cognates on the opposite front. According to some historians, Pecheneg culture has a great influence on Zeybek culture.[7][8]

However, according to other sources, mostly Greek, the Zeybeks were of Greek origin.[9] According to Greek historian Kostas B. Spanos, the Zeybeks were Greeks who migrated from Thrace and settled in Bursa, Aydin and Sakarya.[9] They were Islamized but not Turkified.[9] According to another Greek historian, Georgios Skalieris, they were of Greek and Phrygo-Pelasgian descent.[10] Greek historian Thomas Korovinis, in his detailed study of the Zeybeks, summarizes 7 of the main theories on their origins.[11] These posit that the Zeybeks are the descendants of:[11]

Traditionally, the Zeybeks acted as protectors of village people against landlords, bandits, and tax collectors. A leader of a Zeybek gang was called Efe and his soldiers were known as either Zeybeks or Kızan. The term "Efe" was used for the leaders of Zeybek groups, while the "Kızan" were beneath the Zeybeks. According to the Armenian-Turkish linguist Sevan Nisanyan, the origin of the term "Efe" is either of Greek (efevos, 'young man with courage') or Turkic (eğe, ece, ebe, "big brother" in old Turkic) origin.[12] The origin of the term "Zeybek" is according to Nisanyan also not clear. According to Nisanyan, it is either of Turkic or Arabic origin[13] Some sources claim that it evolved from sübek, sü meaning "army, soldiers" and bek meaning "lord (bey)" in old Turkic. According to Onur Akdogu, it evolved from saybek, meaning "strong guardian" in old Turkic.[14] According to Paul Wittek it may evolve from the name "Salpakis Mantachias" used by the Byzantine historian Pachymeres for Mentesh Bey, who founded the Beylik of Menteşe in southwestern Anatolia.[15] The term "Kızan" is of Turkic origin and means "boy".[16] Kızan was generally used for newly recruited or inexperienced Zeybeks. There was generally a tribe democracy within a group. Decisions were made in a democratic way and after the decision was made, Efe had an uncontroversial authority. They followed definite rituals for all actions; for example, the promotion of a kızan to zeybek was very similar to Ahi rituals.

From the 17th to 19th century, the Zeybeks evolved to outlaws and bandits terrorizing the Aegean Region.[17] Before the Treaty of Lausanne and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, larger concentrations of Zeybeks could be found on the Aegean coast of western Anatolia, near the city of İzmir (Greek: Smyrna) and Magnesia. After the Greek landing at Smyrna they fought against the Greek occupation of western Turkey.[18][19] Following the formation of a Turkish national army, during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most of them joined the regular forces and continued their resistance. During and after the Turkish War of Independence they were no longer seen as bandits and outlaws, but as heroes, nationalist forces fighting against a foreign and non-muslim force.[20] An English report about the Zeybeks and Yörüks states; "Those people hate the Greeks, and are known for their heroism."[21]

Culture

Zeybeks have a dance called the Zeybek dance. The Zeibekiko dance in Greece is a different and special of Greek style dance. There are different Zeybek dances in Turkey. There is the "Avşar Zeybeği" (The Afshars were an Oghuz Turkic tribe.), Aydın Zeybeği, Muğla Zeybeği, Tavas Zeybeği, Kordon Zeybeği, Bergama Zeybeği, Soma Zeybeği, Ortaklar Zeybeği, Pamukçu Zeybeği, Harmandalı Zeybeği, Sakız Zeybeği, Tefenni Zeybeği, Kadıoğlu Zeybeği, Kocaarap Zeybeği (Koca = Big, Arap = Arab), Abdal Zeybeği (Turkmen Bektashi dervishes were often called "Abdal", there was also an "Abdal" tribe belonging to the White Huns[22]) and Bengi (Bengü meant "eternity" in old Turkic) Zeybeği.[2]The Greek version of the dance was brought by Greeks from Izmir to Greece,[23] which used to be called "Türkikos",[24][25][26] but this name is not used anymore. Romantic songs about their bravery are still popular in Turkish and Greek folk music. The yatagan sword was their primary weapon, but most of them carried firearms as well.

See also

References

  1. ^ Edip Uysal, Ahmet (1 June 1968). "LAW-BREAKERS, LAW-GIVERS, AND PREACHERS IN THE TURKISH ORAL TRADITION". New York Folklore Quarterly. 24 (2): 129–143. ProQuest 1290817887.
  2. ^ a b c d Töre - Aylık Fikir ve Sanat Dergisi, Nisan 1972, Sayı 11, pp. 13-21
  3. ^ Ali Haydar Avci, “Bir Sosyal İsyancılık Kurumu: Zeybeklik ve Zeybekler”, Folklor Edebiyat Dergisi, 1997, p. 47, Ankara: Başkent Klişe Matbaacılık.
  4. ^ M. Ö. Özbilgin, (2003), Zeybeklik Kurumu ve Zeybek Oyunları, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İzmir, p. 29
  5. ^ Yavuz, B. Galip (2012), Zeybekler, IV. Baskı, p. 41, İzmir: Efe Ofset ve Matbaacılık.
  6. ^ Bey, Osman Hamdi (1873). Les costumes populaires de la Turquie en 1873 (in French). pp. 137–138.
  7. ^ Hayati Kuzucu, Türk Milli Kimliğinin Oluşması Süreci ve Yukarı Teke Örneği Bağlamında Dirmil’in Demografisi, Burdur 2017, s. 119.
  8. ^ Mehmet Eröz, Milli Kültürümüz ve Meselelerimiz, Doğuş Yayın ve Dağıtım, İstanbul 1983, s. 85-86.
  9. ^ a b c Σπανός, Κώστας (1 January 1972). "Τα νεοελληνικά επώνυμα στη Δεσκάτη" [Modern Greek surnames in Deskata]. Μακεδονικά (in Greek). 12: 123–130. doi:10.12681/makedonika.1001.
  10. ^ Σκαλιέρης, Γεώργιος Κλ. (1922). "Λαοί και φυλαί της Μικράς Ασίας: Μετά πινάκων και χαρτών". Αθήνα: Ρήσος. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
  11. ^ a b Κοροβίνης, Θωμάς (2005). Οι Ζεϊμπέκοι της Μικράς Ασίας [The Zeybeks of Asia Minor] (in Greek). Agra. pp. 47–50. ISBN 978-960-325-559-8.
  12. ^ "Nişanyan Sözlük Türkçe".
  13. ^ "Nisanyan Sozluk Zeybek".
  14. ^ Akdoğu, Onur (1994), "Zeybek Kelimesinin Kökeni", Türk Kültürü, 374: 355-367.
  15. ^ Wittek, Paul (1944), Menteşe Beyliği 13-15. Asırda Garbi Küçük Asya Tarihine Ait Bir Tetkik (çev. O.Ş. Gökyay), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları IV. Seri No: l, pp. 29-32
  16. ^ "Kızan sözcüğünün kökeni".
  17. ^ Uluçay, Çağatay (1955), XVIII. ve XIX. yüzyıllarda Saruhan’da Halk Hareketleri ve Eşkiyalık, İstanbul: Berksoy Basımevi.
  18. ^ Sina Aksin (1 February 2007). Turkey, from Empire to Revolutionary Republic: The Emergence of the Turkish Nation from 1789 to Present. NYU Press. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-0-8147-0722-7.
  19. ^ Jeremy Seal (5 July 2012). Meander: East to West along a Turkish River. Random House. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-1-4481-3922-4.
  20. ^ Öztürk, Okan Murat (2003), Zeybek Kültürü ve Müziği, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, pp. 24-25
  21. ^ İngiliz Gizli Belgelerinde Türkiye, İnceleme: Erol Ulubelen, İstanbul, 1967, p. 207, Vesika No. 509.
  22. ^ Gankovsky, Yu. V., et al. A History of Afghanistan, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1982, p. 382
  23. ^ "Zeybek, The - Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism".
  24. ^ Petrides, Theodore; Petrides, Elfleida (1961). Folk Dances of the Greeks: Origins and Instructions. Exposition Press. pp. 65–78. ISBN 978-0-682-47642-3.
  25. ^ Ataman, Sadi Yaver (1970). "Zeybeklerin Soyu ve Zeybek Kıyafetleri". Musıki Mecmuası. 23 (259): 6.
  26. ^ GAZİM İHAL, Mahmut Ragıp, (1991), Türk Halk Oyunları Katalogu /. (Ed. Nail Tan). Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, p. 215

Sources

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