river coming from farther north. No studies have been made in central Africa, but it is likely that caecilians are found in the tropical rainforests there. The northernmost distribution is of the species Ichthyophis sikkimensis of Northern India. In Africa caecilians are found from Guinea Bissau (Geotrypetes) until Northern Zambia (Scolecomorphus). In South-East Asia the Wallace-Line is not crossed and they are
Caecilians are the only order of amphibians which only use internal insemination. The male Caecilians have a penis-like organ, the phallodeum, which is inserted into the cloaca of the female for 2 to 3 hours. About 25% of the species are oviparous (egg-laying); the eggs are guarded by the female. For some species the young caecilians are already metamorphosed when they hatch,
75% of the species are viviparous, meaning that they give birth to already developed offspring. The fetus is fed inside the female with special cells of the oviduct, which are eaten
feeds its young by developing a special outer layer of skin, which the young peel off with similar teeth. Ichthyophis is oviparous and is also known to show maternal care.
The name Caecilian derives from the Latin word caecus = blind, referring to the small or sometimes non-existing eyes. The name dates back to the taxonomic name of the first species described by Carolus Linnaeus, which he gave the name Caecilia tentaculata. The taxonomic name of the order derives from the Greek words γυμνος (gymnos, naked) and οφις (ophis, snake), as the
not all species have been described yet, and that some of the species described below as different may be combined into one species in future reclassifications.
A Swiss researcher Daniel Hofer has recently found that certain caecilians produce potent skin poisons from specialized poison glands. The poison prevents predation and the poison of the bright yellow caecilian
0 (zero) is both a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. As a number, zero means nothing — an absence of other values. It plays
a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, zero is used as a placeholder in place value
systems. Historically, it was the last digit to come into use. In the English language, zero may also be called null or nil when a number, o/oh when a numeral, and
no brothers, and if something has a weight of zero, it has no weight. If the difference between the number of pieces in two piles is zero, it means the two piles have an equal number of pieces. Before counting starts, the result can be assumed to be zero; that is the number of items counted before you count the first item and counting the first item brings the result to one. And if there are no items to be counted, zero remains the final result.
While mathematicians all accept zero as a number, some non-mathematicians would say that zero is not a number, arguing that one cannot have zero of something. Others hold that if one has a bank balance of zero, one has a specific quantity of money in that account, namely none. It is that latter view which is accepted by mathematicians and most others.
Almost all historians omit the year zero from the proleptic Gregorian and Julian calendars, but astronomers include it in these same calendars. However, the phrase Year Zero may be used to
The modern numeral 0 is normally written as a circle or (rounded) rectangle. In old-style fonts with text figures, 0 is usually the same height as a lowercase x.
On the seven-segment displays of calculators, watches, etc., 0 is usually written with six line segments, though on some historical calculator models it was written with four line segments. This variant
It is important to distinguish the number zero (as in the "zero brothers" example above) from the numeral or digit zero, used in numeral systems using positional notation. Successive positions of
digits have higher values, so the digit zero is used to skip a position and give appropriate value to the preceding and following digits. A zero digit is not always necessary
The oval-shaped zero and circular letter O together came into use on modern character displays. The zero with a dot in the centre seems to have originated as an option on
IBM 3270 controllers (this has the problem that it looks like the Greek letter Theta). The slashed zero, looking identical to the letter O other than the slash, is used in
old-style ASCII graphic sets descended from the default typewheel on the venerable ASR-33 Teletype. This format causes problems because of its similarity to the symbol , representing the empty set, as
The convention which has the letter O with a slash and the zero without was used at IBM and a few other early mainframe makers; this is even more problematic for Scandinavians because it means two of their letters collide. Some Burroughs/Unisys equipment displays a zero with a reversed slash. And yet another convention common on early line printers left zero unornamented
The typeface used on some European number plates for cars distinguish the two symbols by making the zero rather egg-shaped and the O more circular, but most of all by slitting
open the zero on the upper right side, so the circle is not closed any more (as in German plates). The typeface chosen is called fälschungserschwerende Schrift (abbr.: FE Schrift), meaning
In paper writing one may not distinguish the 0 and O at all, or may add a slash across it in order to show the difference, although this sometimes causes ambiguity
Jesus, according to the Anno Domini era created by Dionysius Exiguus in 525 as argued by one scholar, Georges Declercq, in Anno Domini (2000). Most scholars argue that Dionysius
A powerful supernova is observed. It is so bright that it can be seen in daylight. The supernova remnant left by the event is now known as the Crab Nebula. * Pope Leo IX and Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, decree each other's excommunication, finalising the Great Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.
March - Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sends ambassadors to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza, to discuss sending mercenaries against the Seljuk Turks.
November 28 - On the last day of the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II appoints Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse to lead the First
A second wave of crusaders arrives in the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem, after being heavily defeated by Kilij Arslan I at Heraclia. See Crusade of 1101.
September 28 - Henry I of England defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebrai, and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William
In the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinals are given the right of election of the Pope. Prior to this, the pope was selected by election by the clergy and congregation of
Yasovarman II succeeds his uncle Dharanindravarman as ruler of the Khmer Empire. Dharanindravarman's son Jayavarman, acquieses to his cousin's succession and goes into exile in neighboring Champa.
Start of the conquest of Ireland. Richard fitzGilbert de Clare ('Strongbow') makes an alliance with the exiled Irish chief, Dermot MacMurrough, to help him recover his kingdom of Leinster.
Third Council of the Lateran condemned Waldensians and Cathars as heretics, institutes a reformation of clerical life, and creates the first "ghettos" for Jews
Founding of Katedralskolan in Lund, Sweden. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe. Peter and Asen led a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the Byzantine Empire, eventually establishing the Second Bulgarian Kingdom.
1192 - Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing Kamakura shogunate, the first shogunate in the history of Japan. May 27, 1199 Friday - John Lackland (1167-1216) became King of England upon the death of his older brother Richard the Lion Hearted. His coronation took place in Westminster Abbey.
Creation of water boards in the region of present-day Netherlands, thereby being one of the oldest democratic entities still in existence in the world today.
July 17 - Fourth Crusade captures Constantinople by assault; the Byzantine emperor Alexius III flees from his capital into exile. August 1 - Fourth Crusade elevates Alexius IV as Byzantine emperor, after the citizens of Constantinople proclaim as emperor Isaac II Angelus (Alexius IV's father). William de Braose, Fourth Lord of Bramber becomes the guardian of Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, and is possibly responsible for his death.
April 12 - The Fourth Crusade take Constantinople by storm, and pillage the city for three days. End of the Fourth Crusade. May 16 - Baldwin, Count of Flanders is crowned emperor of the Latin Empire a week after his election by the members of the Fourth Crusade. Theodore I Lascaris flees to Nicaea after the capture of Constantinople, and establishes the Empire of Nicaea; Byzantine successor states are also established in Epirus and Trebizond.
May 30 - Battle of Damme; English fleet under William Longsword destroyes a French fleet off the Belgian port in the first major victory for the fledgling Royal Navy. September 12 - Battle of Muret; The Toulousain and Aragonese forces of Raymond VI of Toulouse and Peter II of Aragon defeated by the Albigensian Crusade under Simon de Montfort Jin China is overrun by Mongols under Ghengis Khan, who plunder the countryside and cities, until only Beijing remained free, despite two bloody palace coups and a lengthy siege.
The Emperor of Jin China surrenders to the Mongols under Ghengis Khan who have been besieging Beijing for a year. He pays a huge ransom and then abandons Northern China, heading
February 18 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
Battle of the Sit River was fought in the northern part of the present-day Yaroslavl Oblast of Russia between the Mongol Hordes of Batu Khan and the Russians under George II
May 15 - Pope Innocent IV issues the papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes the torture of heretics in the Medieval Inquisition. Torture quickly gains widespread usage across Catholic Europe.
The Polish land of Lebus is incorporated into German state of Brandenburg, marking the start of Brandenburg's expansion into previously Polish areas (Neumark).
A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to
Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil
October 13 - Friday the 13th: All Knights Templar in France are simultaneously arrested by agents of Phillip the Fair, to be later tortured into "admitting" heresy.
Foundation year of the Order of the Rose Cross (Rosicrucian Order), according to the Rosicrucian Fellowship. According to major occult writers, this Order was for the first time expounded in Dante's
In North America, after arriving in different areas in Mexico, the Aztec settle in a swampy area near Lake Texcoco, and found the city of Tenochtitlan.
Aradia de Toscano, is initiated into a Dianic cult of Italian Witchcraft (Stregheria), and discovers through a vision that she is the human incarnation of the goddess Aradia. Known as
April 6 - Petrarch sees a woman he names Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon, which awakes in him a lasting passion. He writes a series of poems dedicated to
The poet Petrarch coins the pejorative term Dark Ages to describe the preceding 900 years in Europe, beginning with the fall of the western Roman Empire in 410 through to the
June 24 - The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. The former was under the command of
almost complete destruction of the French. Both their commanders were among the casualties. However the mercenaries manage to escape. A son of deceased King Christopher II of Denmark is elected to the throne following eight years of Interregnum. He will reign as Valdemar IV of Denmark.
Margarete Maultasch, Countess of Tyrol, expels her husband John Henry of Bohemia, to whom she had been married as a child. She subsequently marries Louis of Bavaria without having been divorced,
Roman Commoner Cola di Rienzo proclaims himself a new Roman dictator in Capitoline Hill in Rome; Pope Clement VI denounces him as a pagan and a heretic and he is driven
The English, weakened by the plague, lose so much ground to the French that they agree to sign the Treaty of Bruges, leaving them with only the coastal towns of Calais,
Muhammad al-Mutawakkil I is briefly deposed this year as Abbasid puppet caliph of the Mamluks, Zakariyya' al-Mu'tasim taking the throne for that period.
A sermon by a German monk states "the game of cards has come to us this year" and prohibitions against cards are issued by John of Castile and the cities of
Henry IV quells Epiphany Rising and executes the Earls of Kent, Huntingdon and Salisbury and the Baron le Despencer for their attempt to have Richard II of England restored as King
September 14 - Battle of Homildon Hill. Northern English nobles led by Sir Henry "Hotspur" Percy, defeat a Scottish raiding army under the Earl of Douglas
The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over
May 22 - Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans - Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort,
March 5 - King Christian I of Denmark declares the unity of the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, who have been treated as one ever since (albeit under different national
June - The Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of York, land in England with an army and seize London.
July 18 - Battle of Northampton - Warwick and March defeat a Lancastrian army and seize King Henry. It is agreed that York will be Henry's heir, disinheriting the King's
December 30 - Battle of Wakefield - A Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland defeats a Yorkist army under the Duke of York
and his son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland. Both York and Rutland are killed, the latter murdered after the battle. York's son Edward becomes leader of the Yorkist faction.
February 2 - Battle of Mortimer's Cross - Yorkist troops led by Edward, Duke of York defeat Lancastrians under Owen Tudor and his son Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke in Wales.
February 17 - Second Battle of St Albans - The Earl of Warwick's army is defeated by a Lancastrian force under Queen Margaret, who recovers control of her husband.
March 29 - Battle of Towton - Edward IV defeats Queen Margaret to make good his claim to the English throne. Thought to be the bloodiest battle ever fought in
May 4 - Battle of Tewkesbury - King Edward defeats a Lancastrian army under Queen Margaret and her son, Edward of Westminster the Prince of Wales, who is killed. This
December - Vlad III Dracula manages to become reigning Prince of Wallachia for the third and last time before being assassinated by decapitation. His head is sent to his old enemy
February 18 - George, Duke of Clarence, convicted of treason against his older brother Edward IV of England, is privately executed in the Tower of London.
January 20 - Ferdinand II ascends the throne of Aragon and rules together with his wife Isabella, queen of Castile over most of the Iberian peninsula. Together they conquer Granada in
Christopher Columbus - experienced mariner and successful trader in the thriving Genoese "ex-pat" community in Portugal, marries Felipa Perestrelo Moniz (Italian on her father's side) and receives no ordinary dowry: Her
March 6 - Treaty of Toledo - Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain recognize African conquests of Afonso of Portugal and he cedes the Canary Islands to Spain
September 15 - Peter Arbues, is assassinated while praying in the cathedral at Saragossa, Spain and he died on September 17. He had been appointed Inquisitor of Aragon by the
December 5 - Pope Innocent VIII gives the inquisition a mission to hunt heretics and witches in Germany with the lead of Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger
November 19 - Christopher Columbus goes ashore on an island he saw for the first time only the day before. He names it San Juan Bautista (later renamed Puerto Rico).
July - Spanish forces under Gonzalo Hernandez de Cordoba capture Atella after a siege. Among the prisoners is the French viceroy of Naples, the Comte de Montpensier. Ferrante II
Christopher Columbus return to Spain from his fourth voyage where he and his younger son, Ferdinand, explored the coast of Central America from Belize to Panama.
June 6 - Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three year truce and cede several territories to
December 10 - League of Cambrai formed as an alliance against Venice between Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of Aragon.
January 23 - Henry VIII of England, then 18 years-old, appears incognito in the lists at Richmond, and is applauded for his jousting before he reveals himself.
April 22 - Battle of Bicocca - French and Swiss forces under Odet de Lautrec are defeated by the Spanish in their attempt to retake Milan, and are forced to withdraw
December 20 - Suleiman the Magnificent accepts the surrender of the surviving Knights, who are allowed to evacuate. They eventually re-settle on Malta and become known as the Knights of
May 6 - Spanish and German troops led by the Duke of Bourbon sack Rome (the infamous Sacco di Roma), forcing Pope Clement VII to make peace with Charles V.
April 22 - Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.
March 7 or 9 - At the Battle of Shimbra Kure, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, with 200 men armed with matchlocks, defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia.
Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France sign the Treaty of Cambrai, or the "Ladies' Peace". Francis abandons his claims in Italy, but is allowed to retain Burgundy.
May 19 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons (who Cartier kidnapped during
October 4 - The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
Anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
July 9 - Estevão da Gama departs Massawa, leaving behind 400 matchlockmen and 150 slaves under his brother Christovão da Gama, with orders to assist the Emperor of Ethiopia defeat Ahmad
July 12 - King Henry VIII of England marries Catherine Parr. It is the sixth of Henry's marriages and the third of Catherine's. Princess Elizabeth attends the wedding
September 10 - Battle of Pinkie. An English army under the Duke of Somerset, Protector of England, defeats a Scottish army under James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the Regent. The
August 2 - Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat
Battle of Sievershausen - Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
February 12 - After claiming the throne of England the previous year, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason alongside her husband.
July 23 - 25 - Wedding of Queen Mary I of England and King Philip of Naples, only son of Emperor Charles V in Winchester, England. August 12 - Battle of Renty. French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V.
March 23 - Emperor Gelawdewos of Ethiopia, defending his lands against the invasion of Nur ibn Mujahid, Sultan of Harar, is killed in battle. His brother Menas succeeds him as king.
The Duke of Alva arrives in the Netherlands with Spanish forces to suppress unrest there. He replaces Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands. Prince William of Orange
April 1 - The Sea Beggars, Netherlandish Calvinist rebels, capture the port city of Brielle. This leads to a wave of uprisings in Holland and Zealand, leaving most of those
August 18 - Wedding in Paris of the Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre with Marguerite de France, sister of King Charles, in a supposed attempt to reconcile Protestants and Catholics. August 24 - St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris. Catholics in Paris murder thousands of Protestants, including Gaspard de Coligny, at the order of King Charles IX. Henry of
May 28 - Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. The earlier version, known as the
Christopher Columbus return to Spain from his fourth voyage where he and his younger son, Ferdinand, explored the coast of Central America from Belize to Panama.
June 6 - Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three year truce and cede several territories to
December 10 - League of Cambrai formed as an alliance against Venice between Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of Aragon.
January 23 - Henry VIII of England, then 18 years-old, appears incognito in the lists at Richmond, and is applauded for his jousting before he reveals himself.
April 22 - Battle of Bicocca - French and Swiss forces under Odet de Lautrec are defeated by the Spanish in their attempt to retake Milan, and are forced to withdraw
December 20 - Suleiman the Magnificent accepts the surrender of the surviving Knights, who are allowed to evacuate. They eventually re-settle on Malta and become known as the Knights of
May 6 - Spanish and German troops led by the Duke of Bourbon sack Rome (the infamous Sacco di Roma), forcing Pope Clement VII to make peace with Charles V.
April 22 - Treaty of Saragossa divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.
March 7 or 9 - At the Battle of Shimbra Kure, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, with 200 men armed with matchlocks, defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia.
Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France sign the Treaty of Cambrai, or the "Ladies' Peace". Francis abandons his claims in Italy, but is allowed to retain Burgundy.
May 19 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons (who Cartier kidnapped during
October 4 - The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
Anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
July 9 - Estevão da Gama departs Massawa, leaving behind 400 matchlockmen and 150 slaves under his brother Christovão da Gama, with orders to assist the Emperor of Ethiopia defeat Ahmad
July 12 - King Henry VIII of England marries Catherine Parr. It is the sixth of Henry's marriages and the third of Catherine's. Princess Elizabeth attends the wedding
September 10 - Battle of Pinkie. An English army under the Duke of Somerset, Protector of England, defeats a Scottish army under James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the Regent. The
August 2 - Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat
Battle of Sievershausen - Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
February 12 - After claiming the throne of England the previous year, Lady Jane Grey is beheaded for treason alongside her husband.
July 23 - 25 - Wedding of Queen Mary I of England and King Philip of Naples, only son of Emperor Charles V in Winchester, England. August 12 - Battle of Renty. French forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise turn back an invasion of Picardy by Charles V.
March 23 - Emperor Gelawdewos of Ethiopia, defending his lands against the invasion of Nur ibn Mujahid, Sultan of Harar, is killed in battle. His brother Menas succeeds him as king.
The Duke of Alva arrives in the Netherlands with Spanish forces to suppress unrest there. He replaces Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Netherlands. Prince William of Orange
April 1 - The Sea Beggars, Netherlandish Calvinist rebels, capture the port city of Brielle. This leads to a wave of uprisings in Holland and Zealand, leaving most of those
August 18 - Wedding in Paris of the Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre with Marguerite de France, sister of King Charles, in a supposed attempt to reconcile Protestants and Catholics. August 24 - St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris. Catholics in Paris murder thousands of Protestants, including Gaspard de Coligny, at the order of King Charles IX. Henry of
May 28 - Publication of the Bergen Book, better known as the Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran confessional writings. The earlier version, known as the
January 23 - The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces. William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger
June 17 - Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I. With an English claim here
and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea." Drake's claim is called
1580-1764 First session of Jewish Waad (Sejm of 4 countries) in Lublin, Poland. 70 delegates of Jewish local kahals met to discuss taxations and other issues important to Jewish communities.
The first translation of the complete Bible into Slovenian language: Bibilija, tu je vse svetu pismu stariga inu noviga testamenta, slovenski tolmaÄena skuzi Jurija Dalmatina (Wittenberg), i.e. The Bible, it is
May 28 - The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel (it will take until May 30 for all
August 2 - The English and Spanish fleets meet again off Dorset. (The English fleet is led by Lord Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake.) The English again have the
August 6 - Battle of Gravelines: The Spanish Armada is defeated by an English naval force under command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake off the coast of Gravelines,
August 8 - August 9 - The Spanish are unable to reach the coast of Flanders to meet up with the army of the Duke of Parma. Medina Sidonia decides to
August 12 - The Spanish fleet sails past the Firth of Forth, and the English cease their pursuit. Much of the Spanish fleet is destroyed as it sails around Scotland and
December 23 - Henry III of France strikes his ultra-Catholic enemies, having the Duke of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise, killed, and holding the Cardinal de Bourbon a
Ahmad al-Mansur, sultan of Morocco, demands that the king of Songhay give a heavy tribute in exchange of a Saharan salt, probably in an intentional provocation. When Songhay's answer is defiant,
17 January - A court case in Guildford recorded evidence that a certain plot of land was used for playing “kreckett†(i.e., cricket) as early as 1550.
A Roman army of 90,000 men commanded by Germanicus gains a victory at Idistaviso, defeating the German war chief Arminius and capturing his wife Thusnelda, and recovering the lost eagles of
actually took place after midnight, in the early morning of December 12, but commemorations/celebrations on Fête de l'Escalade are usually held on December 11 or the closest weekend.)
Bonham's Case decided by Edward Coke chief justice of England's Court of Common Pleas. Coke affirmed the supremacy of the common law which limited the power of Parliament as well as
October 11 - Adriaen Block and a group of Amsterdam merchants petition the States General for exclusive trading rights in the area he explored and named "New Netherland".
The French Estates-General meets for the last time before the era of the French Revolution. In between, France will be governed as an absolute monarchy.
March 8 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery).
The 3000 seat Teatro Farnese, the first permanent proscenium theatre, was built into the Great Hall of the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, Italy in 1618.