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((Short description|none))
((Use dmy dates|date=April 2024))
((primary sources|date=April 2017))
[[File:PCA results of Arabian and other populations.png|thumb |upright=1.35|[[Principal component analysis]] of various populations, including the [[Middle East]]]]
((Ancient Near East topics))

The '''genetic history of the Middle East''' is the subject of research within the fields of human [[population genetics|population genomics]], [[archaeogenetics]] and [[Middle Eastern studies]]. Researchers use [[Y-DNA]], [[mtDNA]], and [[Genealogical DNA test#Autosomal DNA (atDNA)|other autosomal DNA]] tests to identify the genetic history of ancient and modern populations of [[Egypt]], [[Persia]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Anatolia]], [[Arabia]], the [[Levant]], and other areas.

==History==
((See also|Fertile Crescent#Cosmopolitan diffusion))
Developments in [[DNA sequencing]] in the 1970s and 1980s provided researchers with the tools needed to study [[human genetic variation]] and the [[population genetics|genetics of human populations]] to discover [[founder effect|founder populations]] of modern people groups and human migrations.<ref>((cite web |title=Understanding Human Genetic Variation |date=2007 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20363/ |work=NIH Curriculum Supplement Series [Internet] |access-date=21 October 2023 |publisher=National Institutes of Health (US)))</ref>

In 2005, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] launched [[The Genographic Project]], led by 12 prominent scientists and researchers, to study and map historical human migration patterns by collecting and analyzing [[DNA]] samples from hundreds of thousands of people from around the world. National Geographic stopped selling Geno kits on May 31, 2019 and is no longer processing results.<ref>((Cite web |title=The Genographic Project® Geno 2.0 Next Generation Helix Product Privacy Policy |publisher=National Geographic Society |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/pages/article/genographic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220000357/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/pages/article/genographic |url-status=live |archive-date=20 February 2021 |access-date=21 October 2023))</ref>

== Egypt ==
((further|DNA history of Egypt))
Various DNA studies have found that the genetic variant frequencies of [[North African]] populations are intermediate between those of the [[Near East]], the [[Horn of Africa]], [[Southern Europe]] and [[Sub Saharan Africa]], with the strongest links being to the populations of [[West Asia]].<ref>((harvp|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|p=((pn|date=August 2024)))). "The intermediacy of North Africa and to a lesser extent [[Europe]] is apparent."</ref><ref>((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Manni F, Leonardi P, Barakat A, Rouba H, Heyer E, Klintschar M, McElreavey K, Quintana-Murci L |date=October 2002 |title=Y-chromosome analysis in Egypt suggests a genetic regional continuity in Northeastern Africa |journal=Human Biology |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=645–658 |doi=10.1353/hub.2002.0054 |pmid=12495079 |s2cid=26741827))</ref>

A study performed on a sample of 147 modern Egyptians found that the male haplogroups are [[Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] (36.1%, predominantly [[Haplogroup E1b1b1a (Y-DNA)|E-M78]]), [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]] (32.0%), [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|G]] (8.8%), [[Haplogroup T (Y-DNA)|T]] (8.2%), and [[Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)|R]] (7.5%).<ref name="luis2">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Luis JR, Rowold DJ, Regueiro M, Caeiro B, Cinnioğlu C, Roseman C, Underhill PA, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Herrera RJ |date=March 2004 |title=The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: evidence for bidirectional corridors of human migrations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=532–544 |doi=10.1086/382286 |pmc=1182266 |pmid=14973781))</ref> The study found that "Egypt's [[Y chromosome#Non-combining region of Y (NRY)|NRY]] frequency distributions appear to be much more similar to those of the [[Middle East]] than to any sub-Saharan African population, suggesting a much larger [[Eurasia]]n genetic component ... The cumulative frequency of typical sub-Saharan lineages (A, B, E1, E2, E3a, and E3b*) is 9% in Egypt ... whereas the haplogroups of Eurasian origin (Groups C, D, and F–Q) account for 59% [in Egypt]".<ref name="luis2"/> ((harvp|Cruciani et al.|2007)) suggests that E-M78, E1b1b predominant subclade in Egypt, originated in "Northeastern Africa", with a corridor for bidirectional migrations between northeastern and eastern Africa (at least 2 episodes between 23.9 and 17.3 ky and 18.0–5.9 ky ago), trans-Mediterranean migrations directly from northern Africa to Europe (mainly in the last 13.0 ky), and flow from northeastern Africa to western Asia between 20.0 and 6.8 ky ago. Also, the authors identified the frequency of the E-M78 subclade among modern-day populations in the Northeastern African region, which in the study referred to sample groups in Libya and Egypt. ((harvp|Cruciani et al.|2007)) also proposed that E-M35, the parent clade of E-M78, originated in [[East Africa]] during the Palaeolithic and subsequently spread to the region of Egypt.<ref name=":3">((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Cruciani et al.|2007)) |last1=Cruciani |first1=Fulvio |last2=La Fratta |first2=Roberta |last3=Trombetta |first3=Beniamino |last4=Santolamazza |first4=Piero |last5=Sellitto |first5=Daniele |last6=Colomb |first6=Eliane Beraud |last7=Dugoujon |first7=Jean-Michel |last8=Crivellaro |first8=Federica |last9=Benincasa |first9=Tamara |last10=Pascone |first10=Roberto |last11=Moral |first11=Pedro |last12=Watson |first12=Elizabeth |last13=Melegh |first13=Bela |last14=Barbujani |first14=Guido |last15=Fuselli |first15=Silvia |last16=Vona |first16=Giuseppe |last17=Zagradisnik |first17=Boris |last18=Assum |first18=Guenter |last19=Brdicka |first19=Radim |last20=Kozlov |first20=Andrey I. |last21=Efremov |first21=Georgi D. |last22=Coppa |first22=Alfredo |last23=Novelletto |first23=Andrea |last24=Scozzari |first24=Rosaria |display-authors=6 |date=June 2007 |title=Tracing past human male movements in northern/eastern Africa and western Eurasia: new clues from Y-chromosomal haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1300–1311 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msm049 |issn=0737-4038 |pmid=17351267 |doi-access=free))</ref>

A 2004 mtDNA study of 58 upper Egyptian individuals included 34 individuals from [[Kurna|Gurna]], a small settlement on the hills opposite Luxor. The 34 individuals from Gurna exhibited the haplogroups: [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M1]] (6/34 individuals, 17.6%), H (5/34 individuals, 14.7%), L1a (4/34 individuals, 11.8%) and U (3/34 individuals, 8.8%). The M1 haplotype frequency in Gurna individuals (6/34 individuals, 17.6%) is similar to that seen in [[Ethiopian]] population (20%), along with a West Eurasian component different in haplogroup distribution in the Gurna individuals. However, the M1 haplotypes from Gurna individuals exhibited a mutation that is not present in Ethiopian population; whereas this mutation was present in non-M1 haplotype individuals from Gurna. Nile Valley Egyptians do not show the characteristics that were shown by the Gurna individuals. The results of the study suggested that the sample of Gurna individuals had retained elements of an ancestral genetic structure from an ancestral [[East Africa]]n population, characterized by a high M1 haplogroup frequency.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Stevanovitch |first1=A. |last2=Gilles |first2=A. |last3=Bouzaid |first3=E. |last4=Kefi |first4=R. |last5=Paris |first5=F. |last6=Gayraud |first6=R. P. |last7=Spadoni |first7=J. L. |last8=El-Chenawi |first8=F. |last9=Béraud-Colomb |first9=E. |display-authors=6 |title=Mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in a sedentary population from Egypt |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |date=January 2004 |volume=68 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=23–39 |doi=10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00057.x |pmid=14748828 |s2cid=44901197 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14748828/ |issn=0003-4800))</ref> Another 2004 mtDNA study featured the Gurna individuals samples, and clustered them together with the [[Ethiopian]] and [[Yemeni]] groups, in between the Near Eastern and other African sample groups.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Kivisild T, Reidla M, Metspalu E, Rosa A, Brehm A, Pennarun E, Parik J, Geberhiwot T, Usanga E, Villems R |title=Ethiopian Mitochondrial DNA Heritage: Tracking Gene Flow Across and Around the Gate of Tears |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |date=2004 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=752–770 |doi=10.1086/425161 |pmid=15457403 |pmc=1182106))</ref>

A 2005 genetic study found close affinities of eastern sub-Saharan populations with Egypt in the phylogenetic trees through analysis of the short DNA sequences. The authors suggested that the influential role of the Nile River served as a migratory route and an agent of genetic flow which contributed to present-day [[Genetic heterogeneity|heterogeneity]] in Egypt.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Terreros |first1=Maria C. |last2=Martinez |first2=Laisel |last3=Herrera |first3=Rene J. |title=Polymorphic Alu Insertions and Genetic Diversity Among African Populations |journal=Human Biology |date=2005 |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=675–704 |doi=10.1353/hub.2006.0009 |jstor=41466364 |pmid=16596946 |s2cid=36880409 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41466364 |issn=0018-7143))</ref>

A study which analyzed 275 samples from five populations in [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Egypt]], as well as published data from [[Morocco|Moroccan]] populations, suggests that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation, including in Egypt, is largely of Neolithic origin. The study analyzed North African populations, including North Egyptians and South Egyptians, as well as samples from Southern Europe, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa, and revealed the following conclusions about the male-lineage variation in North Africa: "The lineages that are most prevalent in North Africa are distinct from those in the regions to the immediate north and south: Europe and sub-Saharan Africa ... two haplogroups predominate within North Africa, together making up almost two-thirds of the male lineages: E3b2 and J* (42% and 20%, respectively). E3b2 is rare outside North Africa, and is otherwise known only from Mali, Niger, and Sudan to the immediate south, and the Near East and Southern Europe at very low frequencies. Haplogroup J reaches its highest frequencies in the Middle East".<ref name="Bosch19972">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Arredi B, Poloni ES, Paracchini S, Zerjal T, Fathallah DM, Makrelouf M, Pascali VL, Novelletto A, Tyler-Smith C |date=August 2004 |title=A predominantly neolithic origin for Y-chromosomal DNA variation in North Africa |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=338–345 |doi=10.1086/423147 |pmc=1216069 |pmid=15202071))</ref>

Shomarka Keita examined a published Y-chromosome dataset on Afro-Asiatic populations and found that a key lineage [[Haplogroup E1b1b1a (Y-DNA)|E-M35]]/[[Haplogroup E1b1b1a (Y-DNA)|E-M78]], sub-clade of haplogroup E, was shared between the populations in the locale of original Egyptian speakers and modern Cushitic speakers from the Horn. These lineages are present in Egyptians, Berbers, Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa, and Semitic speakers in the Near-East. He noted that variants are also found in the Aegean and Balkans, but the origin of the M35 subclade was in [[East Africa]], and its clades were dominant in a core portion of Afro-Asiatic speaking populations which included [[Cushitic]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] and [[Berber languages|Berber]] groups, in contrast Semitic speakers showed a decline in frequency going west to east in the Levantine-Syria region. Keita identified high frequencies of M35 (>50%) among [[Omotic]] populations, but stated that this derived from a small, published sample of 12. Keita also wrote that the PN2 mutation was shared by M35 and M2 lineages and this defined clade originated from East Africa. He concluded that "the genetic data give population profiles that clearly indicate males of African origin, as opposed to being of Asian or European descent" but acknowledged that the biodiversity does not indicate any specific set of skin colors or facial features as populations were subject to microevolutionary pressures.<ref>((cite book |last=Keita |first=Shomarka |chapter=Geography, selected Afro-Asiatic families, and Y chromosome lineage variation: An exploration in linguistics and phylogeography |pages=3–17 |editor-last=Bengtson |editor-first=John D. |title=In Hot Pursuit of Language in Prehistory |date=2008 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-3252-6 |location=Amsterdam |chapter-url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/z.145.05kei))</ref>

A study analyzed various populations and found that Copts and Egyptians showed low levels of genetic differentiation and lower levels of genetic diversity compared to the northeast African groups. Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European/Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry, and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). The study concluded that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that the behavior in the admixture analyses is consistent with shared ancestry between Copts and Egyptians and/or additional [[genetic drift]] in the Copts.<ref name=":1">((cite journal |last1=Hollfelder |first1=Nina |last2=Schlebusch |first2=Carina M. |last3=Günther |first3=Torsten |last4=Babiker |first4=Hiba |last5=Hassan |first5=Hisham Y. |last6=Jakobsson |first6=Mattias |date=24 August 2017 |title=Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=e1006976 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976 |pmc=5587336 |pmid=28837655 |doi-access=free ))</ref>

A genetic study published in the "''European Journal of Human Genetics"'' (2019) found that Northern Africans (including Egyptians) from a global population sample of 164 were closely related to Europeans and [[West Asia]]ns as well as to [[Southwest Asia]]ns. However, the authors acknowledged that the results of the study, which featured the 55 AINSP panel, would have further weight if further extensive population studies from Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt were obtained as only nine population samples were included to represent the North African region.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Pakstis |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Gurkan |first2=Cemal |last3=Dogan |first3=Mustafa |last4=Balkaya |first4=Hasan Emin |last5=Dogan |first5=Serkan |last6=Neophytou |first6=Pavlos I. |last7=Cherni |first7=Lotfi |last8=Boussetta |first8=Sami |last9=Khodjet-El-Khil |first9=Houssein |last10=Ben Ammar ElGaaied |first10=Amel |last11=Salvo |first11=Nina Mjølsnes |last12=Janssen |first12=Kirstin |last13=Olsen |first13=Gunn-Hege |last14=Hadi |first14=Sibte |last15=Almohammed |first15=Eida Khalaf |last16=Pereira |first16=Vania |last17=Truelsen |first17=Ditte Mikkelsen |last18=Bulbul |first18=Ozlem |last19=Soundararajan |first19=Usha |last20=Rajeevan |first20=Haseena |last21=Kidd |first21=Judith R. |last22=Kidd |first22=Kenneth K. |display-authors=6 |title=Genetic relationships of European, Mediterranean, and SW Asian populations using a panel of 55 AISNPs |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |date=December 2019 |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1885–1893 |doi=10.1038/s41431-019-0466-6 |pmid=31285530 |pmc=6871633 |s2cid=195825764 |language=en |issn=1476-5438))</ref>

=== Ancient Egyptians ===
Contamination from handling and intrusion from microbes create obstacles to the recovery of [[Ancient DNA]].<ref>((cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |vauthors=Bard KA, Shubert SB |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-203-98283-9 |pages=278–279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNdgScxtirYC))</ref> Consequently, most DNA studies have been carried out on modern [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] populations with the intent of learning about the influences of historical migrations on the population of Egypt.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Keita SO, Boyce AJ |date=2005 |title=Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation |journal=History in Africa |volume=32 |pages=221–246 |doi=10.1353/hia.2005.0013 |jstor=20065742 |s2cid=163020672 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884))</ref><ref name="Shomarka Keita (2005)">((cite journal |vauthors=Keita SO |date=2005 |title=Explanation of the Pattern of P49a,f ''Taq''I RFLP Y-Chromosome Variation in Egypt |journal=African Archaeological Review |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=61–75 |doi=10.1007/s10437-005-4189-4 |jstor=25130819 |s2cid=162272036))</ref><ref name="Keita">((cite journal |vauthors=Keita SO |date=2005 |title=History in the interpretation of the pattern of p49a,f TaqI RFLP Y-chromosome variation in Egypt: a consideration of multiple lines of evidence |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=559–567 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20428 |pmid=16136533 |s2cid=33076762))</ref><ref>((cite web |title=Shomarka Keita: What genetics can tell us |work=National Geographic Magazine |publisher=National Geographic Society |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/?titleID=1414281487 |access-date=30 June 2014 |archive-date=|archive-url=))((dead link|date=August 2024))</ref>  According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the Amarna royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.<ref>((cite book |last1=Stiebing Jr |first1=William H. |last2=Helft |first2=Susan N. |date=3 July 2023 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AUm7EAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-88066-3 |pages=100–200))</ref>

In 1993, a study was performed on ancient [[mummy|mummies]] of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]], which identified multiple lines of descent, some of which originated from [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] but other lineages were not identified.<ref>((cite book |vauthors=Paabo S, Di Rienzo A |chapter=A molecular approach to the study of Egyptian history |title=Biological Anthropology and the Study of Ancient Egypt |veditors=Davies V, Walker R |pages=86–90 |location=London |publisher=British Museum Press |date=1993))</ref><ref>((cite book |vauthors=Keita SO, Boyce AJ |chapter=The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians |title=In Egypt in Africa |veditors=Celenko T |date=December 1996 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253332691 |pages=20–33))</ref>

((harvp|Hawass et al.|2010)) undertook detailed anthropological, radiological, and genetic studies as part of the King Tutankhamun Family Project. The objectives included attempting to determine familial relationships among 11 royal mummies of the New Kingdom, as well to research for pathological features including potential inherited disorders and infectious diseases.<ref>((Cite journal |ref=((harvid|Hawass et al.|2010)) |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi |last2=Gad |first2=Yehia Z. |last3=Ismail |first3=Somaia |last4=Khairat |first4=Rabab |last5=Fathalla |first5=Dina |last6=Hasan |first6=Naglaa |last7=Ahmed |first7=Amal |last8=Elleithy |first8=Hisham |last9=Ball |first9=Markus |last10=Gaballah |first10=Fawzi |last11=Wasef |first11=Sally |last12=Fateen |first12=Mohamed |last13=Amer |first13=Hany |last14=Gostner |first14=Paul |last15=Selim |first15=Ashraf |display-authors=6 |date=17 February 2010 |title=Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family |journal=JAMA |volume=303 |issue=7 |pages=638–647 |doi=10.1001/jama.2010.121 |issn=0098-7484 |pmid=20159872))</ref> ((harvp|Hawass et al.|2012)) undertook an anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study of the 20th dynasty mummies of Ramesses III and an unknown man which were found together.<ref name=pmid23247979>((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Hawass et al.|2012)) |last=Hawass |first=Zahi |last2=Ismail |first2=Somaia |last3=Selim |first3=Ashraf |last4=Saleem |first4=Sahar N. |last5=Fathalla |first5=Dina |last6=Wasef |first6=Sally |last7=Gad |first7=Ahmed Z. |last8=Saad |first8=Rama |last9=Fares |first9=Suzan |last10=Amer |first10=Hany |last11=Gostner |first11=Paul |last12=Gad |first12=Yehia Z. |last13=Pusch |first13=Carsten M. |last14=Zink |first14=Albert R. |display-authors=6 |date=2012 |title=Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study |journal=BMJ |volume=345 |at=e8268 |doi=10.1136/bmj.e8268 |pmid=23247979 |s2cid=206896841 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10072/62081))</ref>

In 2012 the 20th dynasty mummies of [[Ramesses III]] and another mummy "Unknown Man E" believed to be Ramesses III's son [[Pentawer]] were analyzed by Albert Zink, Yehia Z Gad and a team of researchers under [[Zahi Hawass]], then Secretary General of the [[Supreme Council of Antiquities]], Egypt. Genetic kinship analyses revealed identical haplotypes in both mummies using the Whit Athey's haplogroup predictor, the Y chromosomal haplogroup E1b1a ([[Haplogroup E-M2|E-M2]]) was predicted.<ref name=pmid23247979/>
[[File:From right to left an Egyptian, an Assyrian, a Nubian, and Libyans.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.8|From right to left: an Egyptian, an Assyrian, a Nubian, and Libyans from the tomb of [[Seti I]]]]
In 2013, ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' announced the publication of the first genetic study utilizing [[Whole genome sequencing|next-generation sequencing]] to ascertain the ancestral lineage of an Ancient Egyptian individual. The research was led by Carsten Pusch of the [[University of Tübingen]] in [[Germany]] and Rabab Khairat, who released their findings in the ''Journal of Applied Genetics''. DNA was extracted from the heads of five Egyptian mummies that were housed at the institution. All the specimens were dated between 806 BC and 124 AD, a timeframe corresponding with the late Dynastic period. The researchers observed that one of the mummified individuals likely belonged to the mtDNA [[Haplogroup I (mtDNA)|haplogroup I2]], a maternal clade that is believed to have originated in [[Western Asia]].<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Marchant J |title=Egyptian mummies yield genetic secrets |journal=Nature News |date=12 April 2013 |doi=10.1038/nature.2013.12793 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024 |url= https://www.nature.com/news/egyptian-mummies-yield-genetic-secrets-1.12793 ))</ref>

In a 2017 study published in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], three ancient Egyptian mummies were obtained spanning around 1,300 years of [[Egypt]]ian history from the late [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] to the [[Roman Egypt|Roman period]]. The study used 135 modern Egyptian samples. Two of the three ancient Egyptians were assigned to haplogroup [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]] and one to haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1]] both are carried by modern Egyptians. Analyses of the ancient Egyptian samples revealed higher affinities with near eastern populations compared to modern Egyptians, likely due to an 8% increase in African component which occurred predominantly within the last 2000 years.<ref name=":2">((cite journal |vauthors=Schuenemann VJ, Peltzer A, Welte B, van Pelt WP, Molak M, Wang CC, Furtwängler A, Urban C, Reiter E, Nieselt K, Teßmann B, Francken M, Harvati K, Haak W, Schiffels S, Krause J |display-authors=6 |title=Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |page=15694 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28556824 |pmc=5459999 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15694 |bibcode=2017NatCo...815694S))</ref> "Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out despite this more recent sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with [[Ethiopians|modern Ethiopians]] is not supported."<ref name=":2"/> The authors noted that the ancient Egyptian samples were obtained from one site and may not be representative for all of ancient Egypt. They stated that more genetic studies on mummified remains from southern Egypt and Sudan would be needed to reach a conclusive view.<ref name=":2"/> ((harvp|Gourdine et al.|2018)) criticised the methodology of the study and argued that the Sub-Saharan "genetic affinities" may be attributed to "early settlers" and "the relevant Sub-Saharan genetic markers" do not correspond with the geography of known trade routes".<ref>((cite book |last1=Eltis |first1=David |last2=Bradley |first2=Keith R. |last3=Perry |first3=Craig |last4=Engerman |first4=Stanley L. |last5=Cartledge |first5=Paul |last6=Richardson |first6=David |title=The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500-AD 1420 |date=12 August 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84067-5 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DskwEAAAQBAJ&dq=gourdine+critique+their+methods&pg=PA150 |language=en))</ref> However a follow-up study in 2022 sampled six different excavation sites along the entire length of the Nile Valley, spanning 4000 years of Egyptian history, and the 18 high quality mitochondrial genomes that were reconstructed which the authors argued supported the results from the earlier study at Abusir el-Meleq.<ref>((cite conference |vauthors=Urban C, Neukamm J, Eppenberger P, Brändle M, Rühli F, Schuenemann V |date=2021 |url=https://isba9.sciencesconf.org/data/pages/Abstract_Book_ISBA9_2022.pdf |title=Human mitochondrial haplogroups and ancient DNA preservation across Egyptian history |conference=ISBA9, 9th International Symposium on Biomolecular Archaeology June 1st – 4th 2021 (Toulouse, France) |pages=126–127 |quote=In a previous study, we assessed the genetic history of a single site: Abusir el-Meleq from 1388 BCE to 426 CE. We now focus on widening the geographic scope to give a general overview of the population genetic background, focusing on mitochondrial haplogroups present among the whole Egyptian Nile River Valley. We collected 81 tooth, hair, bone, and soft tissue samples from 14 mummies and 17 skeletal remains. The samples span approximately 4000 years of Egyptian history and originate from six different excavation sites covering the whole length of the Egyptian Nile River Valley. NGS 127 based ancient DNA 8 were applied to reconstruct 18 high-quality mitochondrial genomes from 10 different individuals. The determined mitochondrial haplogroups match the results from our Abusir el-Meleq study.))</ref> In 2023, [[Christopher Ehret]] criticised the conclusions of the 2017 study which proposed the ancient Egyptians had a Levantine background based on insufficient sampling and a "biased" interpretation of the genetic data.<ref>((cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24410-5 |pages=97, 167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en))</ref> Ehret also cited previous genetic analysis which had identified the [[Horn of Africa]] as the origin of the [[Haplogroup E-M35|E-M35]] paternal haplogroup found among Egyptians.<ref>((cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=83–97, 167–169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |access-date=20 March 2023))</ref>

The tomb of two high-status Egyptians, [[Tomb of Two Brothers|Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht]] was discovered by Sir [[Flinders Petrie]] and Ernest Mackay in 1907. Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht lived during the [[12th Dynasty]] (1985–1773 BCE) in Middle Egypt and were aged 20 years apart. Their tomb was completely undisturbed prior to its excavation. Each mummy has a different physical morphology and in the DNA analysis by the University of Manchester differences between the Y chromosome SNPs indicate different paternal lineages concluding that Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht were half-brothers but Y chromosome sequences were not complete enough to determine paternal haplogroup. The SNP identities were consistent with mtDNA haplogroup M1a1 with 88.05–91.27% degree of confidence, thus confirming the [[Africa]]n origins of the two individuals.<ref>((cite journal |author1=Konstantina Drosoua |author2=Campbell Price |author3=Terence A. Brown |title=The kinship of two 12th Dynasty mummies revealed by ancient DNA sequencing |date=February 2018 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=17 |pages=793–797 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.12.025 |bibcode=2018JArSR..17..793D |url= https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-kinship-of-two-12th-dynasty-mummies-revealed-by-ancient-dna-sequencing(6f7e0e83-90eb-4950-b451-cec627c5f6a4).html))</ref>

In 2020 Yehia Z Gad and other researchers of the Hawass team published results of an analysis of the mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups of several mummies of 18th Dynasty Including [[Tutankhamun]] in the journal Human Molecular Genetics, Volume 30, Issue R1, 1 March 2021, Pages R24–R28,<ref>((cite journal |last1=Gad |first1=Yehia Z |last2=Hassan |first2=Naglaa Abu-Mandil |last3=Mousa |first3=Dalia M |last4=Fouad |first4=Fayrouz A |last5=El-Sayed |first5=Safaa G |last6=Abdelazeem |first6=Marwa A |last7=Mahdy |first7=Samah M |last8=Othman |first8=Hend Y |last9=Ibrahim |first9=Dina W |last10=Khairat |first10=Rabab |last11=Ismail |first11=Somaia |display-authors=6 |title=Insights from ancient DNA analysis of Egyptian human mummies: clues to disease and kinship |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |date=26 April 2021 |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R24–R28 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddaa223| issn=0964-6906 |pmid=33059357 |doi-access=free ))</ref> Results were used to provide information about the phylogenetic groups of his family members and their presence among the reported contemporary Egyptian population data. The analysis confirmed previous data of the Tutankhamun's ancestry with multiple controls authenticating all results. However, the specific clade of R1b was not determined and the profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete, the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data. The proposed sibling relationship between Tutankhamun's parents, [[Akhenaten]] and the mummy known as the "younger lady" (KV35YL) is further supported.

In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analysed 8 [[STR analysis|Short Tandem loci]] (STR) data published as part of these studies by ((harvp|Hawass et al.|2010)), using an algorithm that only has three choices: Eurasians, sub-Saharan Africans, and East Asians, but not North Africa or the Near East, with "Eurasians" being strictly European populations.<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Pereira |first1=Luísa |last2=Alshamali |first2=Farida |last3=Andreassen |first3=Rune |last4=Ballard |first4=Ruth |last5=Chantratita |first5=Wasun |last6=Cho |first6=Nam Soo |last7=Coudray |first7=Clotilde |last8=Dugoujon |first8=Jean-Michel |last9=Espinoza |first9=Marta |last10=González-Andrade |first10=Fabricio |last11=Hadi |first11=Sibte |last12=Immel |first12=Uta-Dorothee |last13=Marian |first13=Catalin |last14=Gonzalez-Martin |first14=Antonio |last15=Mertens |first15=Gerhard |display-authors=6 |date=2011-09-01 |title=PopAffiliator: online calculator for individual affiliation to a major population group based on 17 autosomal short tandem repeat genotype profile |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |language=en |volume=125 |issue=5 |pages=629–636 |doi=10.1007/s00414-010-0472-2 |issn=1437-1596 |pmid=20552217 |s2cid=11740334 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10642/472))</ref> Nonetheless, using these three options, Keita concluded that the studies showed "a majority to have an affinity with "[[sub-Sahara]]n" Africans in one affinity analysis". However, Keita cautioned that this does not mean that the royal mummies "lacked other affiliations" which he argued had been obscured in typological thinking. Keita further added that different "data and algorithms might give different results" which reflects the complexity of biological heritage and the associated interpretation.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Keita SO |title=Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |volume=35 |pages=93–127 |date=September 2022 |url=https://egyptianexpedition.org/articles/ideas-about-race-in-nile-valley-histories-a-consideration-of-racial-paradigms-in-recent-presentations-on-nile-valley-africa-from-black-pharaohs/))</ref>

Blood typing and DNA sampling on ancient Egyptian [[mummies]] is scant; however, a 1982 study of blood typing of dynastic mummies found ABO frequencies to be most similar to modern Egyptians.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Borgognini Tarli SM, Paoli G |date=1982 |title=Survey on paleoserological studies |journal=Homo Gottingen |volume=33 |issue=2–3 |pages=69–89 |id=((INIST|12409492))))</ref> ABO blood group distribution shows that modern Egyptians form a sister group to North African populations, including [[Berber people|Berbers]], [[Nubians]] and [[Canary Island]]ers.((sfnp|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=169–174))

== Iran ==
((further|Iranian peoples#Genetics))

=== Links to Chalcolithic Anatolia ===
A 2017 study analyzed the autosomal DNA and genome of an Iron Age Iranian sample taken from [[Teppe Hasanlu]] (F38_Hasanlu, dated to 971–832 BCE) and revealed it had close affinities to a Chalcolithic North-West Anatolian individual from Kumtepe even closer than Neolithic Iranians. This implies admixture took place between ancient populations of Iran and Anatolia.<ref name="pmid27417496">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Broushaki F, Thomas MG, Link V, López S, van Dorp L, Kirsanow K, Hofmanová Z, Diekmann Y, Cassidy LM, Díez-Del-Molino D, Kousathanas A, Sell C, Robson HK, Martiniano R, Blöcher J, Scheu A, Kreutzer S, Bollongino R, Bobo D, Davudi H, Munoz O, Currat M, Abdi K, Biglari F, Craig OE, Bradley DG, Shennan S, Veeramah K, Mashkour M, Wegmann D, Hellenthal G, Burger J |date=14 July 2016 |title=Early Neolithic genomes from the eastern Fertile Crescent |journal=Science |volume=353 |issue=6298 |pages=499–503 |bibcode=2016Sci...353..499B |doi=10.1126/science.aaf7943 |pmc=5113750 |pmid=27417496))</ref>

=== Gilaks and Mazandaranis ===
((further|Gilaks#Genetics|Mazanderani people#Genetics))
A genetic study was made on the North Iranian populations on the [[Gilaki people|Gilaks]] and [[Mazandarani people|Mazandaranis]], spanning the southwestern coast of the [[Caspian Sea]], up to the border with neighbouring [[Azerbaijan]]. The Gilaks and Mazandaranis comprise 7% of the Iranian population. The study suggested that their ancestors came from the [[Caucasus]] region, perhaps displacing an earlier group in the South Caspian. Linguistic evidence supports this scenario, in that the Gilaki and Mazandarani languages (but not other Iranian languages) share certain typological features with [[Caucasian languages]], and specifically [[South Caucasian languages]]. There have been patterns analyzed of mtDNA and Y chromosome variation in the Gilaki and Mazandarani.<ref name="pmid16581511">((cite journal |vauthors=Nasidze I, Quinque D, Rahmani M, Alemohamad SA, Stoneking M |title=Concomitant replacement of language and mtDNA in South Caspian populations of Iran |journal=Current Biology |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=668–673 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16581511 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.021 |s2cid=7883334 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2006CBio...16..668N))</ref>

Based on mtDNA HV1 sequences, the Gilaks and Mazandarani most closely resemble their geographic and linguistic neighbors, namely other Iranian groups. However, their Y chromosome types most closely resemble those found in groups from the [[South Caucasus]].<ref name="pmid16581511"/>
A scenario that explains these differences is a south Caucasian origin for the ancestors of the Gilani and Mazandarani, followed by introgression of women (but not men) from local Iranian groups, possibly because of patrilocality.<ref name="pmid16581511"/>
Given that both mtDNA and language are maternally transmitted, the incorporation of local Iranian women would have resulted in the concomitant replacement of the ancestral Caucasian language and mtDNA types of the Gilani and Mazandarani with their current Iranian language and mtDNA types. Concomitant replacement of language and mtDNA may be a more general phenomenon than previously recognized.((cn|date=August 2024))

The Mazandarani and Gilani groups fall inside a major cluster consisting of populations from the [[Caucasus]] and [[West Asia]] and are particularly close to the South Caucasus groups—[[Georgians]], [[Armenians]], and [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]]. Iranians from Tehran and Isfahan are situated more distantly from these groups.<ref name="pmid16581511"/>

=== Iranian Azeris ===
((see also|Origin of the Azerbaijanis))
The 2013 comparative study on the complete [[mitochondrial DNA]] diversity in Iranians has indicated that [[Iranian Azerbaijanis]] are more related to the people of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], than they are to other Iranians (Like [[Persians]]), while the Persians, Armenians and [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]] on the other hand were more related to each other.<ref name="pmid24244704">((cite journal | vauthors = Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Bahmanimehr A, Denisova G, Perkova M, Farjadian S, Yepiskoposyan L | title = Complete mitochondrial DNA diversity in Iranians | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = e80673 | date = 14 November 2013 | pmid = 24244704 | pmc = 3828245 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0080673 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...880673D ))</ref> It furthermore showed that overall, the complete mtDNA sequence analysis revealed an extremely high level of genetic diversity in the Iranian populations studied which is comparable to the other groups from the [[South Caucasus]], [[Anatolia]] and [[Europe]].<ref name="pmid24244704" /> The same 2013 research further noted that "the results of AMOVA and MDS analyses did not associate any regional and/or linguistic group of populations in the Anatolia, Caucasus and Iran region pointing to strong genetic affinity of Indo-European speaking Persians and Turkic-speaking Qashqais, thus suggesting their origin from a common maternal ancestral gene pool.<ref name="pmid24244704" /> The pronounced influence of the [[South Caucasus]] populations on the maternal diversity of [[Iranian Azeris]] is also evident from the MDS analysis results."<ref name="pmid24244704" /> The study also notes that "It is worth pointing out the position of Azeris from the Caucasus region, who despite their supposed common origin with Iranian Azeris, cluster quite separately and occupy an intermediate position between the Azeris/Georgians and Turks/Iranians grouping".<ref name="pmid24244704" /> The MtDNA results from the samples overall on average closely resemble those found in the neighbouring regions of the [[Caucasus]], [[Anatolia]], and to a lesser extent (Northern) [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="pmid24244704" />

Among the most common MtDNA lineages in the nation, namely U3b3, appears to be restricted to populations of Iran and the [[Caucasus]], while the sub-cluster U3b1a is common in the whole [[Near East]] region.<ref name="pmid24244704"/>

== Iraq ==
((further|Iraqis#Genetics))

=== Links to South Asia ===
((further|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia))
A 2013 study based on DNA extracted from the dental remains of four individuals from different time eras (200–300 CE, 2650–2450 BCE, 2200–1900 BCE) unearthed at Tell Ashara (ancient [[Terqa]], in modern [[Syria]]) and Tell Masaikh (ancient Kar-Assurnasirpal) suggested a "possible" genetic link between some people of Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Northern India. These links were found in only a handful of people, with the vast majority Mesopotamian remains having local DNA from [[West Asia]], and are likely due to trade links between West and South Asia.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Witas HW, Tomczyk J, Jędrychowska-Dańska K, Chaubey G, Płoszaj T |title=mtDNA from the early Bronze Age to the Roman period suggests a genetic link between the Indian subcontinent and Mesopotamian cradle of civilization |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=9 |at=e73682 |date=11 September 2013 |pmid=24040024 |pmc=3770703 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0073682 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2013PLoSO...873682W))</ref> A 2014 study expanding on the 2013 study and based on analysis of 15751 DNA samples arrives at the conclusion, that "M65a, M49 and/or M61 haplogroups carrying ancient Mesopotamians might have been the [[merchants]] from India".<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Palanichamy MG, Mitra B, Debnath M, Agrawal S, Chaudhuri TK, Zhang YP |title=Tamil merchant in ancient Mesopotamia |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=e109331 |date=9 October 2014 |pmid=25299580 |pmc=4192148 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0109331 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j9331P |doi-access=free))</ref>

=== Assyrians ===
((further|Assyrian people#Genetics))
In the 1995 book ''The History and Geography of Human Genes'' the authors wrote that: "The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] are a fairly homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq and southeast Anatolia, and Ancient Mesopotamia in general[..] they are Christians and are bona fide descendants of their ancient namesakes."((sfnp|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|p=243)) In a 2006 study of the Y chromosome DNA of six regional populations, including, for comparison, [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Syrians]] from the Levant, researchers found that, "the two [[Semitic people|Semitic]] populations (Assyrians and Syrians) are very distinct from each other according to both [comparative] axes. This difference supported also by other methods of comparison points out the weak genetic affinity between the two populations with different historical destinies."<ref name="Iran and the Caucasus">((cite journal | vauthors = Yepiskoposian L, Khudoyan A, Harutyunian A |title=Genetic Testing of Language Replacement Hypothesis in Southwest Asia |journal=Iran and the Caucasus |date=2006 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=191–208 |doi=10.1163/157338406780345899 |jstor=4030922 ))</ref>

A 2008 study on the genetics of "old ethnic groups in Mesopotamia," including 340 subjects from seven ethnic communities ("These populations included [[Assyrians]], [[Iraqi Mizrahi Jews]], Persian [[Zoroastrians]], Armenians, Arabs and Turkmen (representing ethnic groups from Iran, restricted by rules of their religion), and the [[Iraqis|Iraqi]] and Kuwaiti populations from Iraq and Kuwait.") found that Assyrians were homogeneous with respect to all other ethnic groups sampled in the study, regardless of religious affiliation.<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Banoei MM, Chaleshtori MH, Sanati MH, Shariati P, Houshmand M, Majidizadeh T, Soltani NJ, Golalipour M | display-authors = 6 | title = Variation of DAT1 VNTR alleles and genotypes among old ethnic groups in Mesopotamia to the Oxus region | journal = Human Biology | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–81 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18505046 | doi = 10.3378/1534-6617(2008)80[73:VODVAA]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 10417591 ))</ref>

=== Marsh Arabs ===
((further|Marsh Arabs#Genetics))
A study published in 2011 looking at the relationship between Iraq's [[Marsh Arabs]] and ancient [[Sumer]]ians concluded "the modern Marsh Arabs of Iraq harbour mtDNAs and Y chromosomes that (like those of the Assyrians and Mandeans) are predominantly of Mesopotamian origin. Therefore, certain cultural features of the area such as water buffalo breeding and rice farming, which were most likely introduced from the Indian sub-continent, only marginally affected the gene pool of the autochthonous people of the region. Moreover, a Middle Eastern ancestral origin of the modern population of the marshes of southern Iraq implies that, ''if'' the Marsh Arabs are descendants of the ancient Sumerians, also Sumerians were not of Indian or Southern Asian ancestry."<ref name="pmid21970613">((cite journal |vauthors=Al-Zahery N, Pala M, Battaglia V, Grugni V, Hamod MA, Hooshiar Kashani B, Olivieri A, Torroni A, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Semino O |display-authors=6 |title=In search of the genetic footprints of Sumerians: a survey of Y-chromosome and mtDNA variation in the Marsh Arabs of Iraq |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=288 |date=October 2011 |pmid=21970613 |pmc=3215667 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-288 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..288A))</ref> The same 2011 study, when focusing on the genetics of the [[Marsh Arabs|Maʻdān]] people of Iraq, identified Y chromosome [[haplotype]]s shared by [[Marsh Arabs]], many [[Arabic]] speaking [[Iraqis]], non Arab [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Iraqi Jews]] and [[Mandeans]] "supporting a common local background."<ref name="pmid21970613" />

== Levant ==
=== Epi-Paleolithic ===
((see also|Natufian culture#Archaeogenetics))
Ancient DNA analysis has confirmed the genetic relationship between [[Natufians]] and other ancient and modern Middle Easterners and the broader West Eurasian meta-population (i.e. [[Genetic history of Europe|Europeans]] and South-Central Asians). The Natufian population displays also ancestral ties to Paleolithic [[Taforalt]] samples, the makers of the Epipaleolithic [[Iberomaurusian]] culture of the Maghreb,<ref name="Loosdrecht">((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Loosdrecht et al.|2018)) |vauthors=Loosdrecht M, Bouzouggar A, Humphrey L, Posth C, Barton N, Aximu-Petri A, Nickel B, Nagel S, Talbi EH, El Hajraoui MA, Amzazi S, Hublin J, Pääbo S, Schiffels S, Meyer M |display-authors=6 |date=15 March 2018 |title=Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6388 |pages=548–552 |issn=0036-8075 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..548V |doi=10.1126/science.aar8380 |pmid=29545507 |s2cid=206666517 |doi-access=free))</ref> the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] culture of the Levant,<ref name="Loosdrecht"/> the Early Neolithic [[Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa]] culture of the Maghreb,<ref name="Fregel">((cite journal |vauthors=Fregel R, Méndez FL, Bokbot Y, Martín-Socas D, Camalich-Massieu MD, Santana J, Moralese J, Ávila-Arcos MC, Underhill PA, Shapiro B, Wojcik G, Rasmussen M, Soaresg AE, Kapp J, Sockell A, Rodríguez-Santosh FJ, Mikdad A, Trujillo-Mederos A, Bustaman CD |display-authors=6 |year=2018 |title=Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=26 |pages=6774–6779 |biorxiv=10.1101/191569 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.6774F |doi=10.1073/pnas.1800851115 |pmc=6042094 |pmid=29895688 |s2cid=214727201 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.1800851115))</ref> the Late Neolithic [[Kelif el Boroud]] culture of the Maghreb,<ref name="Fregel"/><ref name="Shriner 2018">((cite journal |vauthors=Shriner D |date=2018 |title=Re-analysis of Whole Genome Sequence Data From 279 Ancient Eurasians Reveals Substantial Ancestral Heterogeneity |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=9 |page=268 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2018.00268 |pmc=6062619 |pmid=30079081 |doi-access=free))</ref> with samples associated with these early cultures all sharing a common genomic component dubbed the "Natufian component", which diverged from other West Eurasian lineages ~26,000 years ago, and is most closely linked to the Arabian lineage.<ref name="Loosdrecht"/><ref name="Fregel"/><ref name="pmid27459054">((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Lazaridis et al.|2016)) |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Lazaridis I, Nadel D, Rollefson G, Merrett DC, Rohland N, Mallick S, Fernandes D, Novak M, Gamarra B, Sirak K, Connell S, Stewardson K, Harney E, Fu Q, Gonzalez-Fortes G, Jones ER, Roodenberg SA, Lengyel G, Bocquentin F, Gasparian B, Monge JM, Gregg M, Eshed V, Mizrahi AS, Meiklejohn C, Gerritsen F, Bejenaru L, Blüher M, Campbell A, Cavalleri G, Comas D, Froguel P, Gilbert E, Kerr SM, Kovacs P, Krause J, McGettigan D, Merrigan M, Merriwether DA, O'Reilly S, Richards MB, Semino O, Shamoon-Pour M, Stefanescu G, Stumvoll M, Tönjes A, Torroni A, Wilson JF, Yengo L, Hovhannisyan NA, Patterson N, Pinhasi R, Reich D |date=25 August 2016 |title=Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East |journal=Nature |volume=536 |issue=7617 |pages=419–424 |issn=0028-0836 |bibcode=2016Natur.536..419L |doi=10.1038/nature19310 |pmc=5003663 |pmid=27459054 |s2cid=89467381 |biorxiv=10.1101/059311))</ref>

Individuals associated with the Natufian culture have been found to cluster with other West Eurasian populations, but also have substantial higher ancestry that can be traced back to the hypothetical "[[Basal Eurasian]]" lineage, which contributed in varying degrees to all West Eurasian lineages, except the [[Ancient North Eurasians]], and peaks among modern [[Gulf Arabs]].<ref name="pmid27459054"/><ref>((Cite journal |last1=Almarri |first1=Mohamed A. |last2=Haber |first2=Marc |last3=Lootah |first3=Reem A. |last4=Hallast |first4=Pille |last5=Turki |first5=Saeed Al |last6=Martin |first6=Hilary C. |last7=Xue |first7=Yali |last8=Tyler-Smith |first8=Chris |display-authors=6 |date=2 September 2021 |title=The genomic history of the Middle East |journal=Cell |language=English |volume=184 |issue=18 |pages=4612–4625.e14 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=8445022 |pmid=34352227))</ref> The Natufians were already differentiated from other West Eurasian lineages, such as the Anatolian farmers north of the Levant, that contributed to the peopling of Europe in significant amounts, and who had some [[Western Hunter Gatherer]]-like (WHG) inferred ancestry, in contrast to Natufians who lacked this component (similar to Neolithic Iranian farmers from the Zagros mountains).<ref name="pmid27459054"/> This might suggest that different strains of West Eurasians contributed to Natufians and Zagros farmers,<ref name="pmid27417496"/><ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Gallego-Llorente M, Connell S, Jones ER, Merrett DC, Jeon Y, Eriksson A, Siska V, Gamba C, Meiklejohn C, Beyer R, Jeon S, Cho YS, Hofreiter M, Bhak J, Manica A, Pinhasi R |display-authors=6 |year=2016 |title=The genetics of an early Neolithic pastoralist from the Zagros, Iran |journal=Sci Rep |volume=6 |page=31326 |bibcode=2016NatSR...631326G |doi=10.1038/srep31326 |pmc=4977546 |pmid=27502179))</ref><ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Fernández E, Pérez-Pérez A, Gamba C, Prats E, Cuesta P, Anfruns J, Molist M, Arroyo-Pardo E, Turbón D |display-authors=6 |year=2014 |title=Ancient DNA analysis of 8000 B.C. near eastern farmers supports an early neolithic pioneer maritime colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands |journal=PLOS Genet |volume=10 |issue=6 |page=e1004401 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401 |pmc=4046922 |pmid=24901650 |doi-access=free))</ref> as both Natufians and Zagros farmers descended from different populations of local [[Hunter gatherer|hunter gatherers]]. Contact between Natufians, other [[Neolithic]] Levantines, Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG), Anatolian and Iranian farmers is believed to have decreased [[Genetic variance|genetic variability]] among later populations in the Middle East. Migrations from the Near-East also occurred towards Africa, and the West Eurasian geneflow into the [[Horn of Africa]] is best represented by the Levant Neolithic, and may be associated with the spread of [[Afroasiatic languages]]. The scientists suggest that the Levantine early farmers may have spread southward into East Africa, bringing along the associated ancestral components.<ref name="pmid27459054-q">((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2016|loc=(Extended Data Table 1))). "However, no affinity of Natufians to sub-Saharan Africans is evident in our genome-wide analysis, as present-day sub-Saharan Africans do not share more alleles with Natufians than with other ancient Eurasians."</ref><ref name="Lazaridis2016">((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2016|loc=([http://biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/suppl/2016/06/16/059311.DC1/059311-1.pdf Table S6.1 – Y-chromosome haplogroup variation in the ancient Near East])))</ref>

According to ancient DNA analyses conducted in 2016 on Natufian skeletal remains in the [[Raqefet Cave]] from present-day northern Israel, the remains of 5 Natufians carried the following paternal haplgroups:<ref name="Lazaridis2016"/><ref>((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2016|loc=([https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/059311v1.supplementary-material Supplementary Table 1]))).</ref>

Y-DNA

* [[Haplogroup E-Z827#E-Z830 (E1b1b1b2)|E1b1b1b2 (xE1b1b1b2a, E1b1b1b2b)]] - meaning an unspecified branch of E1b1b1b2
* [[Haplogroup E-P2|E1b1 (xE1b1a1, E1b1b1b1)]] - i.e. a branch of E1b1 that is neither E1b1a1 nor E1b1b1b1.
* [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1]] - originally classified as CT but further defined as [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b1]].<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Martiniano |first1=Rui |last2=Sanctis |first2=Bianca De |last3=Hallast |first3=Pille |last4=Durbin |first4=Richard |date=20 December 2020 |publication-date=February 2022 |title=Placing ancient DNA sequences into reference phylogenies |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=39 |issue=2 |at=msac017 |doi-access=free |biorxiv=10.1101/2020.12.19.423614 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msac017 |pmc=8857924 |pmid=35084493 |s2cid=229549849))</ref>

Daniel ((harvp|Shriner|2018)) reported the following maternal haplogroups recovered from three of the same six males at the Raqefet Cave: J2a2, J2a2, N1b. Using modern populations as a reference, Shriner showed that Natufians carried 61.2% Arabian, 21.2% Northern African, 10.9% Western Asian, and a small amount of Eastern African ancestry at 6.8% which is associated with the modern Omotic-speaking groups of southern Ethiopia. The study also suggested that this component may be the source of [[Haplogroup E-M96]] (particularly [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|Y-haplogroup E-M215]], also known as "E1b1b") among Natufians.<ref name="Shriner 2018" />

((harvp|Loosdrecht et al.|2018)) argues that the Natufians had contributed genetically to the [[Iberomaurusian]] peoples of Paleolithic and Mesolithic northwest Africa, with the Iberomaurusians' other ancestral component being a unique one of sub-Saharan Africa origin (having both West African-like and Hadza-like affinities).<ref name="Loosdrecht"/> The Sub-Saharan African DNA in Taforalt individuals has the closest affinity, most of all, to that of modern West Africans (e.g., [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], or [[Mende people|Mende]]).<ref name="Loosdrecht"/> In addition to having similarity with the remnant of a more [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Sub-Saharan African lineage (e.g., a [[basal West African]] lineage shared between Yoruba and Mende peoples), the Sub-Saharan African DNA in the Taforalt individuals of the Iberomaurusian culture may be best represented by modern West Africans.<ref name="Jeong">((cite book |last1=Jeong |first1=Choongwon |title=The Handbook of Mummy Studies |publisher=The Handbook of Mummy Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-981-15-1614-6 |pages=1–16 |chapter=Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study: Beyond Human Migration in and Around Europe |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-1614-6_10-1 |s2cid=226555687))</ref>

((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2018)), as summarized by ((harvp|Fregel|2021)), contested the conclusion of ((harvp|Loosdrecht et al.|2018)) and argued instead that the [[Iberomaurusian]] population of [[Prehistoric North Africa#Upper Paleolithic|Upper Paleolithic North Africa]], represented by the [[Taforalt]] sample, can be better modeled as an admixture between a Dzudzuana-like [West-Eurasian] component and an "Ancient North African" component, "that may represent an even earlier split than the [[Basal Eurasian|Basal Eurasians]]." ((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2018)) also argued that an Iberomaurusian/Taforalt-like population contributed to the genetic composition of Natufians "and not the other way around", and that this Iberomaurusian/Taforalt lineage also contributed around 13% ancestry to modern West Africans "rather than Taforalt having ancestry from an unknown Sub-Saharan African source". ((harvp|Fregel|2021)) summarized: "More evidence will be needed to determine the specific origin of the North African Upper Paleolithic populations."<ref>((Cite book |last=Fregel |first=Rosa |title=Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004500228/BP000019.xml |chapter=Chapter 7: Paleogenomics of the Neolithic Transition in North Africa |date=17 November 2021 |doi=10.1163/9789004500228_009 |doi-access=free |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-50022-8 |pages=213–235 |quote=However, a preprint from ((harvp|Lazaridis et al.|2018)) has contested this conclusion based on new evidence from Paleolithic samples from the Dzudzuana site in Georgia (25,000 years BCE). When these samples are considered in the analysis, Taforalt can be better modeled as a mixture of a Dzudzuana component and a sub-Saharan African component. They also argue that it is the Taforalt people who contributed to the genetic composition of Natufians and not the other way around. More evidence will be needed to determine the specific origin of the North African Upper Paleolithic populations, but the presence of an ancestral U6 lineage in the Dzudzuana people is consistent with this population being related to the back migration to Africa.))</ref><ref>((Cite biorxiv |ref=((harvid|Lazaridis et al.|2018)) |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Belfer-Cohen |first2=Anna |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Patterson |first4=Nick |last5=Cheronet |first5=Olivia |last6=Rohland |first6=Nadin |last7=Bar-Oz |first7=Guy |last8=Bar-Yosef |first8=Ofer |last9=Jakeli |first9=Nino |last10=Kvavadze |first10=Eliso |last11=Lordkipanidze |first11=David |last12=Matzkevich |first12=Zinovi |last13=Meshveliani |first13=Tengiz |last14=Culleton |first14=Brendan J. |last15=Kennett |first15=Douglas J. |display-authors=6 |date=21 September 2018 |title=Paleolithic DNA from the Caucasus reveals core of West Eurasian ancestry |biorxiv=10.1101/423079 |quote=Moreover, our model predicts that West Africans (represented by Yoruba) had 12.5±1.1% ancestry from a Taforalt related group rather than Taforalt having ancestry from an unknown Sub-Saharan African source; this may have mediated the limited Neanderthal admixture present in West Africans. An advantage of our model is that it allows for a local North African component in the ancestry of Taforalt, rather than deriving them exclusively from Levantine and Sub-Saharan sources. ... and Taforalt, can all be modeled as a mixture of Dzudzuana and additional ‘Deep’ ancestry that may represent an even earlier split than the Basal Eurasians.)) ((S2CID|91380277))</ref>
[[File:Levantine component.png|thumb|upright=1.35|((color box|#006000)) Arabian Peninsula/East African ancestral components<br />((color box|#00009f)) Levantine ancestral component<br />((color box|#000000)) Other ancestral components<ref name=":0">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Gauguier |first2=Dominique |last3=Youhanna |first3=Sonia |last4=Patterson |first4=Nick |last5=Moorjani |first5=Priya |last6=Botigué |first6=Laura R. |last7=Platt |first7=Daniel E. |last8=Matisoo-Smith |first8=Elizabeth |last9=Soria-Hernanz |first9=David F. |last10=Wells |first10=R. Spencer |last11=Bertranpetit |first11=Jaume |last12=Tyler-Smith |first12=Chris |last13=Comas |first13=David |last14=Zalloua |first14=Pierre A. |year=2013 |editor1-last=Williams |editor1-first=Scott M |title=Genome-wide diversity in the levant reveals recent structuring by culture |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e1003316 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003316 |pmc=3585000 |pmid=23468648 |doi-access=free ))</ref>]]
[[File:Principle component analysis of Levantine populations.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Genome-wide [[principal component analysis]] of world populations with the Levantine cluster shaded in pink<ref name=":0"/>]]

=== Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods ===
A 2018 study analyzed 22 out of the 600 people who were buried in [[Peki'in]] cave from the [[Chalcolithic]] Period, and found out these individuals harbored both local [[Levant]]ine as well as [[Anatolia]]n and [[Zagros]]-related ancestries. This group has peculiar [[Phenotype|phenotypical]] characteristics unseen in earlier Levantines, such as blue eyes.<ref>((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Harney É, May H, Shalem D, Rohland N, Mallick S, Lazaridis I, Sarig R, Stewardson K, Nordenfelt S, Patterson N, Hershkovitz I, Reich D |date=August 2018 |title=Ancient DNA from Chalcolithic Israel reveals the role of population mixture in cultural transformation |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=3336 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.3336H |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-05649-9 |pmc=6102297 |pmid=30127404))</ref>

A 2020 study published in [[Cell (journal)|Cell]] analyzed human remains from Chalcolithic [[Amik Valley|Amuq valley]] as well as [[Bronze Age]] cities of [[Ebla]] and [[Alalakh]] in the Levant. The Chalcolithic inhabitants of Tell Kurdu in Amuq valley were modeled as a mixture of Neolithic Levantine, Anatolian and Zagros-related ancestries. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Ebla and Alalakh required additional Chalcolithic-era Iranian and Southern Levantine ancestry next to their Chalcolithic Amuq valley, implying additional input during the Late Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age transition.<ref name="skourtanioti">((cite journal |vauthors=Skourtanioti E, Erdal YS, Frangipane M, Balossi Restelli F, Yener KA, Pinnock F, Matthiae P, Özbal R, Schoop UD, Guliyev F, Akhundov T, Lyonnet B, Hammer EL, Nugent SE, Burri M, Neumann GU, Penske S, Ingman T, Akar M, Shafiq R, Palumbi G, Eisenmann S, D'Andrea M, Rohrlach AB, Warinner C, Jeong C, Stockhammer PW, Haak W, Krause J |display-authors=6 |title=Genomic History of Neolithic to Bronze Age Anatolia, Northern Levant, and Southern Caucasus |journal=Cell |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=1158–1175.e28 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32470401 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.044 |s2cid=219105572 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.12154/1254 |hdl-access=free))</ref> The origins of the Bronze Age groups in the Amuq valley remain debated, despite numerous designations at the time (e.g., [[Amorites]], [[Hurrians]], [[Eblaite language|Palaeo-Syrians]]). One hypothesis associates the arrival of these groups with climate-forced population movement during the [[4.2-kiloyear event]], a Mega Drought that led to the abandonment of the entire [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur river valley]] in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] in search of habitable areas.<ref name="skourtanioti"/>

=== Canaanites and Phoenicians ===
((further|Canaan#Genetic studies|Phoenicia#Genetic studies))
Zalloua and Wells (2004), under the auspices of a grant from [[National Geographic Magazine]], examined the origins of the [[Canaan]]ite [[Phoenicians]]. The debate between Wells and Zalloua was whether [[haplogroup]] [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] (M172) should be identified as that of the Phoenicians or that of its "parent" [[haplogroup]] M89 on the [[YDNA]] phylogenetic tree.((cn|date=August 2024|reason=Initial reference was for the tree not the debate)) 
Initial consensus suggested that [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] be identified with the Canaanite-Phoenician (North Levantine) population, with avenues open for future research.<ref name=Gore2004>((cite news |work=National Geographic Magazine |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/features/world/asia/lebanon/phoenicians-text/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080326173536/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/features/world/asia/lebanon/phoenicians-text/1 |archive-date=26 March 2008 |title=Who Were the Phoenicians? | vauthors = Gore R |date=October 2004 ))</ref> As Wells commented, "The [[Phoenicians]] were the Canaanites"<ref name=Gore2004/> It was reported in the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] description of the [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] TV Special on this study entitled "Quest for the Phoenicians" that [[ancient DNA]] was included in this study as extracted from the tooth of a 2500-year-old Phoenician [[mummy]].<ref>((cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/previews/phoenicians/ |year=2004 |title=National Geographic Special 'Quest for the Phoenicians' |publisher=[[PBS]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923131922/http://www.pbs.org/previews/phoenicians/|archive-date=23 September 2004))</ref> Wells identified the haplogroup of the Canaanites as haplogroup [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] which originated from Anatolia and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Gore2004" />

=== Cyprus ===
((further|Greek Cypriots#Genetic studies|Turkish Cypriots#Genetic studies))

A 2016 study on 600 [[Cypriot people|Cypriot]] males asserts that "genome-wide studies indicate that the genetic affinity of [[Cyprus]] is nearest to current populations of the [[Levant]]". Analyses of Cypriot haplogroup data are consistent with two stages of prehistoric settlement. [[E-M78|E-V13]] and [[E-M123|E-M34]] are widespread, and PCA suggests sourcing them to the [[Balkans]] and [[Levant]]/[[Anatolia]], respectively. Contrasting haplogroups in the [[Principal component analysis|PCA]] were used as surrogates of parental populations. Admixture analyses suggested that the majority of G2a-P15 and R1b-M269 components were contributed by Anatolia and [[Levant]] sources, respectively, while [[Greece]]/[[Balkans]] supplied the majority of E-V13 and J2a-M67. Haplotype-based expansion times were at historical levels suggestive of recent demography.<ref>((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Voskarides K, Mazières S, Hadjipanagi D, Di Cristofaro J, Ignatiou A, Stefanou C, King RJ, Underhill PA, Chiaroni J, Deltas C |year=2016 |title=Y-chromosome phylogeographic analysis of the Greek-Cypriot population reveals elements consistent with Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements |journal=Investigative Genetics |volume=7 |page=1 |doi=10.1186/s13323-016-0032-8 |pmc=4750176 |pmid=26870315 |doi-access=free ))</ref> On the other hand, more recent Principal Component Analyses based on autosomal DNA, have placed Cypriots clearly separate from Levantine and Middle Eastern groups, either at the easternmost flank of the Southern European cluster,<ref name="pmid27498567">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Kılınç GM, Omrak A, Özer F, Günther T, Büyükkarakaya AM, Bıçakçı E, Baird D, Dönertaş HM, Ghalichi A, Yaka R, Koptekin D, Açan SC, Parvizi P, Krzewińska M, Daskalaki EA, Yüncü E, Dağtaş ND, Fairbairn A, Pearson J, Mustafaoğlu G, Erdal YS, Çakan YG, Togan İ, Somel M, Storå J, Jakobsson M, Götherström A |date=October 2016 |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=19 |pages=2659–2666 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmc=5069350 |pmid=27498567|bibcode=2016CBio...26.2659K ))</ref> or in an intermediate position between Southern Europeans and northern Levantines.<ref name="pmid27417496"/><ref name="pmid27459054"/><ref name="pmid27274049">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Hofmanová Z, Kreutzer S, Hellenthal G, Sell C, Diekmann Y, Díez-Del-Molino D, van Dorp L, López S, Kousathanas A, Link V, Kirsanow K, Cassidy LM, Martiniano R, Strobel M, Scheu A, Kotsakis K, Halstead P, Triantaphyllou S, Kyparissi-Apostolika N, Urem-Kotsou D, Ziota C, Adaktylou F, Gopalan S, Bobo DM, Winkelbach L, Blöcher J, Unterländer M, Leuenberger C, Çilingiroğlu Ç, Horejs B, Gerritsen F, Shennan SJ, Bradley DG, Currat M, Veeramah KR, Wegmann D, Thomas MG, Papageorgopoulou C, Burger J |date=June 2016 |title=Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=113 |issue=25 |pages=6886–6891 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1523951113 |pmc=4922144 |pmid=27274049 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6886H |doi-access=free))</ref> In a study by Harvard geneticist Iosif Lazarides and colleagues investigating the genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans, Cypriots were found to be the second least differentiated population from Bronze Age Mycenaeans based on FST index and also genetically differentiated from Levantines.<ref name="pmid28783727">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Lazaridis I, Mittnik A, Patterson N, Mallick S, Rohland N, Pfrengle S, Furtwängler A, Peltzer A, Posth C, Vasilakis A, McGeorge PJ, Konsolaki-Yannopoulou E, Korres G, Martlew H, Michalodimitrakis M, Özsait M, Özsait N, Papathanasiou A, Richards M, Roodenberg SA, Tzedakis Y, Arnott R, Fernandes DM, Hughey JR, Lotakis DM, Navas PA, Maniatis Y, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Stewardson K, Stockhammer P, Pinhasi R, Reich D, Krause J, Stamatoyannopoulos G |date=August 2017 |title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans |journal=Nature |volume=548 |issue=7666 |pages=214–218 |bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L |doi=10.1038/nature23310 |pmc=5565772 |pmid=28783727))</ref>

A 2017 study found that both Turkish Cypriots' and Greek Cypriots' patrilineal ancestry derives primarily from a single pre-Ottoman local gene pool. The frequency of total haplotypes shared between Turkish and Greek Cypriots is 7-8%, with analysis showing that none of these are found in Turkey, thus not supporting a Turkish origin for the shared haplotypes. No shared haplotypes were observed between Greek Cypriots and mainland Turkish populations, while total haplotypes shared between Turkish Cypriots and mainland Turks is 3%. Turkish Cypriots also share haplotypes with North Africans to a lesser extent, and have Eastern Eurasian haplogroups (H, C, N, O, Q) – attributed to the arrival of the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] – at a frequency of ~5.5%. Both Cypriot groups show close genetic affinity to [[Calabria]]n (southern Italy) and [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] patrilineages. The study states that the genetic affinity between Calabrians and Cypriots can be explained as a result of a common ancient Greek ([[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaean]]) genetic contribution, while Lebanese affinity can be explained through several migrations that took place from coastal Levant to Cyprus from the Neolithic (early farmers), the Iron Age (Phoenicians), and the Middle Ages (Maronites and other Levantine settlers during the Frankish era). The predominant haplogroups among both Turkish and Greek Cypriots are J2a-M410, E-M78, and G2-P287.<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Heraclides |first1=Alexandros |last2=Bashiardes |first2=Evy |last3=Fernández-Domínguez |first3=Eva |last4=Bertoncini |first4=Stefania |last5=Chimonas |first5=Marios |last6=Christofi |first6=Vasilis |last7=King |first7=Jonathan |last8=Budowle |first8=Bruce |last9=Manoli |first9=Panayiotis |last10=Cariolou |first10=Marios A. |display-authors=6 |date=16 June 2017 |title=Y-chromosomal analysis of Greek Cypriots reveals a primarily common pre-Ottoman paternal ancestry with Turkish Cypriots |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=e0179474 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279474H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179474 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5473566 |pmid=28622394 |doi-access=free))</ref>

=== Israel and Palestine ===
((further|Genetic studies on Jews|Palestinians#DNA and genetic studies|Samaritans#Genetic studies))
((see also|Demographic history of Palestine (region)))
[[File:MDS analysis of European, Jewish, and Middle Eastern populations.png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Multidimensional scaling]] analysis of various populations, including Jews and Palestinians<ref>((cite journal | vauthors = Kopelman NM, Stone L, Wang C, Gefel D, Feldman MW, Hillel J, Rosenberg NA | title = Genomic microsatellites identify shared Jewish ancestry intermediate between Middle Eastern and European populations | journal = BMC Genetics | volume = 10 | page = 80 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19995433 | pmc = 2797531 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-10-80 | doi-access = free ))</ref>]]
A study published by the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] found that "the [[Y chromosome|paternal gene]] pools of [[Jewish]] communities from [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Middle East]] descended from a common [[Middle Eastern]] ancestral population", and suggested that "most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighbouring non-Jewish communities during and after the [[Jewish diaspora]]".<ref name="pmid10801975">((cite journal | vauthors = Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B | display-authors = 6 | title = Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 97 | issue = 12 | pages = 6769–6774 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 10801975 | pmc = 18733 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.100115997 | bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.6769H | doi-access = free ))</ref><ref name="Katsnelson2010">((cite journal |last=Katsnelson |first=Alla |date=3 June 2010 |title=Jews worldwide share genetic ties |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news.2010.277))</ref> According to geneticist Doron Behar and colleagues (2010), this is "consistent with a historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient [[Israelites]]". Approximately 35% to 43% of Jewish men are in the [[Y chromosome|paternal line]] known as [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|haplogroup J]] and its sub-haplogroups. This haplogroup is particularly present in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[Horn of Africa]], [[Caucasus]], as well as in [[Southern Europe]].<ref name="semino04">((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Semino O, Magri C, Benuzzi G, Lin AA, Al-Zahery N, Battaglia V, Maccioni L, Triantaphyllidis C, Shen P, Oefner PJ, Zhivotovsky LA, King R, Torroni A, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS |date=May 2004 |title=Origin, diffusion, and differentiation of Y-chromosome haplogroups E and J: inferences on the neolithization of Europe and later migratory events in the Mediterranean area |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1023–34 |doi=10.1086/386295 |pmc=1181965 |pmid=15069642))</ref> 15% to 30% are in haplogroup [[Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] (or [[E-M35]]). Using Y-chromosome DNA from male Jews, a study sought to trace the patrilineal lineage of [[Kohen|Jewish priests]] (Cohanim). Results revealed a common ancestral Y-chromosomal haplotype around 2650 years ago, possibly linked to the historic events of Jerusalem's First Temple destruction in 586 BC and the dispersion of the priesthood.<ref>((Cite book |last1=Renfrew |first1=Colin |title=Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice |last2=Bahn |first2=Paul |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-500-28976-1 |edition=6th |pages=220–221))</ref> Studies of [[mitochondrial DNA]] of Jewish populations are more recent, debatable, and more heterogeneous.<ref>((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Behar DM, Metspalu E, Kivisild T, Rosset S, Tzur S, Hadid Y, Yudkovsky G, Rosengarten D, Pereira L, Amorim A, Kutuev I, Gurwitz D, Bonne-Tamir B, Villems R, Skorecki K |date=April 2008 |title=Counting the founders: the matrilineal genetic ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=e2062 |issn=1932-6203 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2062B |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002062 |pmc=2323359 |pmid=18446216 |doi-access=free))</ref>

In a [[Genetic genealogy|genetic]] study of [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosomal STRs]] in two populations from Israel and the Palestinian Authority Area: Christian and Muslim Palestinians showed genetic differences. The majority of Palestinian Christians (31.82%) were a subclade of [[Haplogroup E-M123|E1b1b]], followed by [[Haplogroup G-M201|G2a]] (11.36%), and [[Haplogroup J-M267|J1]] (9.09%). The majority of Palestinian Muslims were haplogroup [[Haplogroup J-M267|J1]] (37.82%) followed by [[Haplogroup E-M123|E1b1b]] (19.33%), and [[Haplogroup T-M184|T]] (5.88%). The study sample consisted of 44 Palestinian Christians and 119 Palestinian Muslims.<ref name="Forensic">((cite journal |author1=Ana Teresa Fernandes |author2=Rita Gonçalves |author3=Sara Gomes |author4=Dvora Filon |author5=Almut Nebel |author6=Marina Faerman |author7=António Brehm |date=November 2011 |title=Y-chromosomal STRs in two populations from Israel and the Palestinian Authority Area: Christian and Muslim Arabs |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=561–562 |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2010.08.005 |pmid=20843760 |hdl=10400.13/4485|hdl-access=free ))</ref>

In 2004, a team of geneticists from [[Stanford University]], the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], [[Tartu University]] (Estonia), [[Barzilai Medical Center]] (Ashkelon, Israel), and the [[Assaf Harofeh Medical Center]] (Zerifin, Israel), studied the modern [[Samaritan]] ethnic community living in [[Israel]] in comparison with modern Israeli populations to explore the ancient genetic history of these people groups. Their findings reported on four family lineages among the Samaritans: the Tsdaka, Joshua-Marhiv, Danfi, and the [[Cohen Modal Haplotype|Cohen]] family. All Samaritan families were found in [[haplogroup]]s [[Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA)|J1]] and [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]], except the Cohen family which was found in [[haplogroup]] [[E3b|E3b1a-M78]].<ref name="pmid15300852" /> This article predated the E3b1a subclades based on the research of ((harvp|Cruciani et al.|2006))<ref>((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Cruciani et al.|2006)) |vauthors=Cruciani F, La Fratta R, Torroni A, Underhill PA, Scozzari R |title=Molecular dissection of the Y chromosome haplogroup E-M78 (E3b1a): a posteriori evaluation of a microsatellite-network-based approach through six new biallelic markers |journal=Human Mutation |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=831–832 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16835895 |doi=10.1002/humu.9445 |s2cid=26886757 |doi-access=free))</ref>

((harvp|Mekel-Bobrov et al.|2005)) study of [[ASPM (gene)|ASPM gene variants]], found that the [[Druze in Israel|Israeli Druze]] people of the [[Mount Carmel|Carmel region]] have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.<ref>((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Mekel-Bobrov et al.|2005)) |vauthors=Mekel-Bobrov N, Gilbert SL, Evans PD, Vallender EJ, Anderson JR, Hudson RR, Tishkoff SA, Lahn BT | display-authors=6 |title=Ongoing adaptive evolution of ASPM, a brain size determinant in Homo sapiens |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5741 |pages=1720–1722 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16151010 |doi=10.1126/science.1116815 |s2cid=30403575 |bibcode=2005Sci...309.1720M))</ref> While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase. According to [[DNA]] testing, Druze are remarkable for the high frequency (35%) of males who carry the [[Y-chromosome|Y-chromosomal]] [[Haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|haplogroup L]], which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East.<ref name=pmid15300852>((cite journal |vauthors=Shen P, Lavi T, Kivisild T, Chou V, Sengun D, Gefel D, Shpirer I, Woolf E, Hillel J, Feldman MW, Oefner PJ |display-authors=6 |title=Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence variation | journal=Human Mutation |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=248–260 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15300852 |doi=10.1002/humu.20077 |s2cid=1571356))</ref> This haplogroup originates from prehistoric South Asia and has spread from [[Pakistan]] into southern [[Iran]].

=== Lebanon ===
((further|Lebanese people#Genetics))In a 2011 genetic study which analyzed the male-line Y-chromosome genetics of the different religious groups of Lebanon, revealed no noticeable or significant genetic differentiation between the [[Lebanese Maronite Christians|Maronites]], [[Lebanese Greek Orthodox Christians|Greek Orthodox Christians]], [[Lebanese Melkite Christians|Greek Catholic Christians]], [[Lebanese Sunni Muslims|Sunni Muslims]], [[Lebanese Shia Muslims|Shia Muslims]], and [[Lebanese Druze|Druze]] of the region on the more frequent haplogroups. Major differences between [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] groups were found among the less frequent haplogroups.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Haber M, Platt DE, Badro DA, Xue Y, El-Sibai M, Bonab MA, Youhanna SC, Saade S, Soria-Hernanz DF, Royyuru A, Wells RS, Tyler-Smith C, Zalloua PA |display-authors=6 |title=Influences of history, geography, and religion on genetic structure: the Maronites in Lebanon |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=334–340 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21119711 |pmc=3062011 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2010.177))</ref> In a 2007 study, geneticist [[Pierre Zalloua]] found that the genetic marker which identifies descendants of the ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns is found among members of all of Lebanon's religious communities.<ref>((Cite news |author=Tom Perry |date=10 September 2007 |title=In Lebanon DNA may yet heal rifts |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-phoenicians-dna-idUSL0559096520070910 |access-date=16 October 2022))</ref> In a 2013 interview Pierre Zalloua, pointed out that genetic variation preceded religious variation and divisions: "Lebanon already had well-differentiated communities with their own genetic peculiarities, but not significant differences, and religions came as layers of paint on top".((cn|date=August 2024))

A 2017 study published by the [[American Journal of Human Genetics]], concluded that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a [[Canaan|Canaanite-related population]] (Canaanite being a pre-[[Phoenicia]]n name), which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the [[Bronze Age]]. Geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his colleagues at the [[Sanger Institute]] in Britain compared "sampled ancient DNA from five Canaanite people who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people; the comparison revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon come from the Canaanites, and the other 7 percent is of a [[Eurasian steppe]] population.<ref>((cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Haber M, Doumet-Serhal C, Scheib C, Xue Y, Danecek P, Mezzavilla M, Youhanna S, Martiniano R, Prado-Martinez J, Szpak M, Matisoo-Smith E, Schutkowski H, Mikulski R, Zalloua P, Kivisild T, Tyler-Smith C |date=August 2017 |title=Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=274–282 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 |pmc=5544389 |pmid=28757201))</ref>

A 2019 study carried out by the [[Wellcome Sanger Institute]] analyzed the remains of nine [[Crusaders]] found at a burial site in Lebanon, and concluded that "contrary to the popular belief, the Crusaders did not leave a lasting effect on the genetics of Lebanese Christians." Instead, according to the study, today's Lebanese Christians are "more genetically similar to locals from the Roman period, which preceded the Crusades by more than four centuries."<ref name="doi_10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.58">((Cite journal| vauthors=Rakotondradany F |year=2019 |title=Genetic influence of Crusaders short-lived on Lebanese |journal=Nature Middle East |doi=10.1038/nmiddleeast.2019.58 |s2cid=146038520))</ref><ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Haber M, Doumet-Serhal C, Scheib CL, Xue Y, Mikulski R, Martiniano R, Fischer-Genz B, Schutkowski H, Kivisild T, Tyler-Smith C |display-authors=6 |title=A Transient Pulse of Genetic Admixture from the Crusaders in the Near East Identified from Ancient Genome Sequences |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=104 |issue=5 |pages=977–984 |date=May 2019 |pmid=31006515 |pmc=6506814 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.03.015))</ref> A study on Beta Thalassemia Heterogeneity in Lebanon found out that the thalassemia mutations in some Lebanese Christians are similar to the ones observed in Macedonia, which "may confirm the [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient Macedonian]] origin of certain Lebanese Christians".<ref name="pmid15638828">((cite journal |vauthors=Makhoul NJ, Wells RS, Kaspar H, Shbaklo H, Taher A, Chakar N, Zalloua PA |date=January 2005 |title=Genetic heterogeneity of Beta thalassemia in Lebanon reflects historic and recent population migration |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |volume=69 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=55–66 |doi=10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00138.x |pmid=15638828 |s2cid=26098757))</ref>

According to a 2020 study published in the [[American Journal of Human Genetics]], there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon and the [[Levant]] of 91–67% since the [[Bronze Age]] (3300–1200 BC) interrupted by three significant admixture events during the [[Iron Age]], [[Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule|Hellenistic]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period, each contributing 3%–11% of non-local ancestry to the admixed population. The admixtures were postulated to be related to [[Sea Peoples]], Central/South Asians and [[Ottoman Turks]] respectively.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Nassar |first2=Joyce |last3=Almarri |first3=Mohamed A. |last4=Saupe |first4=Tina |last5=Saag |first5=Lehti |last6=Griffith |first6=Samuel J. |last7=Doumet-Serhal |first7=Claude |last8=Chanteau |first8=Julien |last9=Saghieh-Beydoun |first9=Muntaha |last10=Xue |first10=Yali |last11=Scheib |first11=Christiana L. |last12=Tyler-Smith |first12=Chris |display-authors=6 |year=2020 |title=A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=149–157 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008 |pmc=7332655 |pmid=32470374))</ref>

== Turkey ==
((further|Genetic studies on Turkish people))
[[File:Turkey Y chromosome(in 20 haplogroups).png|thumb |upright=1.15|Y chromosome Haplogroup distribution in Turkey.]]
Turkish genomic variation, along with several other [[Western Asian]] populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of [[South Europe]]an populations such as Southern Italians.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017">((cite journal | vauthors = Taskent RO, Gokcumen O | title = The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes | journal = Human Biology | volume = 89 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–117 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 29299965 | doi = 10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01 | s2cid = 6871226 ))</ref> Data from ancient DNA – covering the [[Paleolithic]], the [[Neolithic]], and the [[Bronze Age]] periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of [[Turkic languages|Turkic speakers]], also contributed.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017"/> The first and only (as of 2017) [[whole genome sequencing]] study in Turkey was done in 2014.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017"/> Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017"/> An earlier 2011 review had suggested that "small-scale, irregular punctuated migration events" caused changes in language and culture "among Anatolia's diverse autochthonous inhabitants," which explains Anatolian populations' profile today.<ref>((cite journal |doi=10.2753/AAE1061-1959500101 |title=Who Are the Anatolian Turks? |year=2011 | vauthors = Schurr TG, Yardumian A |journal=Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=6–42|s2cid=142580885 ))</ref>

== See also ==
((div col|colwidth=20em))
*[[Biblical terminology for race]]
*[[Caucasus hunter-gatherer]]
*[[Early human migrations]]
*[[Ethnic groups in the Middle East]]
*[[Genetic history of Europe]]
*[[Genetic history of North Africa]]
*[[Genetic studies on Arabs]]
*[[Genetic studies on Jews]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[Middle Bronze Age migrations (ancient Near East)]]
*[[Middle Eastern studies]]
*[[Near Eastern bioarchaeology]]
*[[Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of the Near East]]
((div col end))

== References ==
((reflist))

==Bibliography==
((refbegin))
* ((cite book |vauthors=Cavalli-Sforza LL, Menozzi P, Piazza A |date=1994 |title=The History and Geography of Human Genes |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-08750-4 |location=Princeton, NJ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FrwNcwKaUKoC))
* ((cite journal |ref=((harvid|Gourdine et al.|2018)) |vauthors=Gourdine J, Keita S, Gourdine J, Anselin A |date=16 August 2018 |title=Ancient Egyptian Genomes from northern Egypt: Further discussion |doi=10.31219/osf.io/ecwf3 |website=OSF Preprints))
*Zalloua, P., Wells, S. (2004) "Who Were the Phoenicians?" ''National Geographic Magazine'', October 2004.
((refend))

==Further reading==
((refbegin))
* ((cite journal |vauthors=King RJ, Ozcan SS, Carter T, Kalfoğlu E, Atasoy S, Triantaphyllidis C, Kouvatsi A, Lin AA, Chow CE, Zhivotovsky LA, Michalodimitrakis M, Underhill PA |display-authors=6 |title=Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=205–214 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18269686 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x |s2cid=22406638))
((refend))

==External links==
* ((cite web |title=YCC NRY Tree 2002 |version=v2002.01.18 |publisher=The University of Arizona |url=http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/nomenclature_system/fig1.html |access-date=16 September 2007|archive-date=5 August 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805220306/http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/nomenclature_system/fig1.html))
* [https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/viewer?mid=1xYZrp9V60fcsnLXZR8t_vrLQdEU DERSIM Y-DNA Map]: Yenok Idris Solmaz's Kurdish Y-DNA map.

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[[Category:Ancient peoples of the Near East]]
[[Category:Archaeology of the Near East]]
[[Category:Demographics of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Genetics by ethnicity|Middle East]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Human population genetics|Middle East]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern studies]]
[[Category:Modern human genetic history|Middle East]]
[[Category:Genetics by country|Middle East]]
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Return to Genetic history of the Middle East.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East"