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((Short description|Structure constructed to convey water))
((Distinguish|Navigable aqueduct))
((Use dmy dates|date=December 2020))
((more citations needed|date= July 2014))
[[File:Arizona cap canal.jpg|thumb|The [[Central Arizona Project]] carries water from the [[Colorado River]] to central and southern Arizona.]]
An '''aqueduct''' is a [[watercourse]] constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away. In modern engineering, the term ''aqueduct'' is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose.<ref name="Brit">((cite encyclopedia |contribution= Aqueduct |title= Britannica |edition= CD |year= 2000))</ref> The term ''aqueduct'' also often refers specifically to a [[aqueduct (bridge)|bridge]] carrying an artificial watercourse.<ref name="Brit" /> Aqueducts were used in [[ancient Greece]], [[ancient Near East]], and [[Roman aqueduct|ancient Rome]]. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. Modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with drinking water.

==Etymology==
The word ''aqueduct'' is derived from the Latin words ((lang |la|aqua)) (''water'') and ((lang|la|[[wikt:ductus|ductus]])) (''led'' or ''guided'').

==Ancient aqueducts==
((Further|History of water supply and sanitation))
Although particularly associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in Greece, the [[Near East]], [[Nile Valley]], and [[Indian subcontinent]], where peoples such as the [[ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Indus Valley civilization|Harappans]] built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the [[Assyria]]ns built an 80&nbsp;km long limestone aqueduct, which included a 10 m high section to cross a 300 m wide valley, to carry water to their capital city, [[Nineveh]].<ref>((Citation |url= http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip24.pdf |first1= Thorkild |last1= Jacobsen |first2= Seton |last2= Lloyd |title= Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan |id= Oriental Institute Publication 24 |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 1935))</ref>

===Crete===
Although particularly associated with the [[Roman aqueduct|Romans]], aqueducts were likely first used by the [[Minoans]] around 2000 BCE. The Minoans had developed what was then an extremely advanced [[irrigation system]], including several aqueducts.<ref>((Cite web|last=Says|first=Alessiobrugnoli|date=2019-07-23|title=Advanced water management and pioneer hydraulic technology in Minoan Crete (Bronze Age)|url=https://novoscriptorium.com/2019/07/23/advanced-water-management-and-pioneer-hydraulic-technology-in-minoan-crete-bronze-age-2/|access-date=2022-01-30|website=Novo Scriptorium|language=en))</ref>

===Deccan===
[[File:Hampi aqueduct.JPG|thumb|Medieval Deccan aqueduct in [[Hampi]]]]
The Indian subcontinent is believed to have some of the earliest aqueducts. Evidence can be found at the sites of present-day [[Hampi, Karnataka]]. The massive aqueducts near [[Tungabhadra River]] supplying irrigation water were once ((convert |15|mi|km)) long.<ref>((cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_kc3LKI_slEC |title= A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India |format= Google Books|isbn= 9788120601253 |last1= Sewell |first1= Robert |year= 1900 |publisher= Asian Educational Services ))</ref> The waterways supplied water to royal bath tubs.

===Oman===
((Main|Falaj))
In [[Oman]] from the [[Iron Age]], in Salut, Bat, and other sites, a system of underground aqueducts called [[falaj]] or qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels.

There are three types of falaj:
*Daudi (داوودية) with underground aqueducts
*Ghaili (الغيلية ) requiring a dam to collect the water
*Aini (العينية ) whose source is a water spring

These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dry land environment.

===Persia===
((Main|Qanat))
[[File:Qanat-3.svg|thumb|Scheme of a [[qanat]], an underground form of aqueduct popular in ancient Persia]]
In [[Iran|Persia]], starting around 3000 years ago <ref>Remini, B.; Kechard, R.; Achour, B. (2014-12-01). "THE COLLECTING OF GROUNDWATER BY THE QANATS: A MILLENNIUM TECHNIQUE DECAYING". Larhyss Journal (20): 259–277.</ref>a system of underground aqueducts called [[qanāt]]s were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This technique:
*taps into subterranean water in a manner that delivers water to the surface without the need for pumping. The water drains relied on gravity, with the destination lower than the source, which is typically an upland aquifer.
*allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a large proportion of the source water to seepage and evaporation.

===Petra, Jordan===
[[File:PetraAqueduct.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nabataeans|Nabataean]] aqueduct in [[Petra]], Jordan]]
Throughout [[Petra]], Jordan, the [[Nabataean]] engineers took advantage of every natural spring and every winter downpour to channel water where it was needed. They constructed aqueducts and piping systems that allowed water to flow across mountains, through gorges and into the temples, homes, and gardens of Petra's citizens. Walking through the [[Siq]], one can easily spot the remains of channels that directed water to the city center, as well as durable retention dams that kept powerful flood waters at bay.

===Greece===
On the island of [[Samos]], the [[Tunnel of Eupalinos]] was built during the reign of [[Polycrates]] (538–522 BC). It is considered an underground aqueduct and brought fresh water to [[Pythagoreion]] for roughly a thousand years.

===Roman===
[[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|thumb|right|The multiple arches of the [[Pont du Gard]], in [[Roman Gaul]]. Its lower tiers carry a road across the river, and the upper tiers support an aqueduct conduit that carried water to [[Nimes]]]]
((Main |Roman aqueduct))
[[Roman Empire|Roman]] aqueducts were built in all parts of the [[Roman Empire]], from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totalled over ((convert|415|km|mi)). The aqueducts supplied fresh water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire, and set a standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. Bridges, built in stone with multiple arches, were a distinctive feature of Roman aqueducts and hence the term ''aqueduct'' is often applied specifically to a [[Aqueduct (bridge)|bridge for carrying water]].<ref name= "Brit" />

===South America===
[[File:Acueductos subterráneos de Cantalloc, Nazca, Perú, 2015-07-29, DD 01.JPG|thumbnail|[[Cantalloc Aqueducts|Underground aqueducts of Cantalloc]], Nazca, Peru]]
Near the Peruvian town of Nazca, an ancient pre-Columbian system of aqueducts called [[Puquios]] were built and are still in use today. They were made of intricately placed stones, a construction material widely used by the Nazca culture. The time period in which they were constructed is still debated, but some evidence supports circa A.D. 540–552, in response to drought periods in the region.<ref>((Citation |url= http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~proulx/online_pubs/Zurich_Puquios_revised_small.pdf |publisher= U Mass |title= Zurich Puquios revised))</ref>

The [[Guayabo National Monument]] of Costa Rica, a park covering the largest archaeological site in the country, contains a system of aqueducts. The complex network of uncovered and covered aqueducts still functions well.<ref>((cite book|last1=Blake|first1=Beatrice|title=The New Key to Costa Rica|date=2009|publisher=Ulysses Press|isbn=9781569756966|page=197|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHrEKXpPXEsC&q=costa+rica+ancient+aqueducts&pg=PA197))</ref> The aqueducts are constructed from rounded river stones, which are mostly made of [[volcanic rock]].<ref>((cite journal|last1=Alvarado|first1=Guillermo E.|last2=Soto|first2=Gerardo J.|title=Volcanoes in the pre-Columbian life, legend, and archaeology of Costa Rica (Central America)|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=1 October 2008|volume=176|issue=3|pages=356–362|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.032|bibcode=2008JVGR..176..356A))</ref> The civilization that constructed the aqueduct system remains a mystery to archaeologists; it is suspected that Guayabo's aqueducts sat at a point of ancient cultural confluence between Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas.

===North America===
When Europeans saw the [[Aztec]] capital [[Tenochtitlan]], early in the 16th century, the city was watered by two aqueducts. One of these, [[Chapultepec aqueduct]], built ((Circa|1420)), was rebuilt by the Spanish almost three hundred years later. Originally tracing part of its path over now-gone [[Lake Texcoco]], only a fragment remains in [[Mexico City]] today.

===Sri Lanka===
Extensive usage of elaborate aqueducts have been found to have been used in ancient [[Sri Lanka]]. The best example is the [[Yodha Ela|Yoda Ela]] or Jaya Ganga, an ((convert|87|km|mi)) long water canal carrying excess water between two artificial reservoirs with a [[Grade (slope)|gradient]] of 10 to 20&nbsp;cm per kilometer during the fifth century AD. However, the ancient engineering methods in calculating the exact elevation between the two reservoirs and the exact gradient of the canal to such fine precision had been lost with the fall of the civilization in 13th Century.<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.srilanka.travel/yoda-ela|title = Sri Lanka Tourism - the Official Website of Sri Lanka Tourisms))</ref>

==Modern aqueducts==
((Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=July 2012))
Modern aqueducts are a central part of many countries' water distribution infrastructure.

The United States' aqueducts are some of the world's largest. The [[Catskill Aqueduct]] carries water to New York City over a distance of 120 miles (190&nbsp;km), but is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country, most notably the 242-mile (389-km) [[Colorado River Aqueduct]], which supplies the Los Angeles area with water from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles to the east and the ((Convert|701.5|mile|km|abbr=|adj=on)) [[California Aqueduct]], which runs from the [[Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta]] to [[Lake Perris]]. The [[Central Arizona Project]] is the largest and most expensive aqueduct constructed in the United States. It stretches 336 miles from its source near [[Parker, Arizona]] to the metropolitan areas of [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] and [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]].

An aqueduct in New Zealand, "the Oamaru Borough Race", was constructed in the late 19th century to deliver water (and water-power) about 50&nbsp;km from the Waitaki River at Kurow to the coastal town of [[Oamaru]].

In Spain, the [[Tagus-Segura Water Transfer]] system of aqueducts opened in 1979 and transports water ((convert|286|km)) from north to south.<ref name="claver-20151027">((cite news|url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/10/13/opinion/1444756539_080642.html|title=El río que nos une|work=El Pais|format=Opinion|first=José Manuel|last=Claver|date=27 October 2015|access-date=8 February 2016))</ref>

In China, the [[South–North Water Transfer Project]] aims to connect the [[Yangtze]] River basin to Beijing through three separate systems. The project will reuse part of the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal of China]].

==Design==

===Open channels===
The simplest aqueducts are small [[ditch]]es cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts, for instance the [[Central Arizona Project]] uses ((convert|24|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip|adj=on)) wide channels.<ref>((Cite web | url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Central%20Arizona%20Project&pageType=ProjectDataPage | title=Request Rejected))</ref> A major factor in the design of all open channels is its gradient. A higher gradient allows a smaller channel to carry the same amount of water as a larger channel with a lower gradient, but increases the potential of the water to damage the aqueduct's structure. A typical Roman aqueduct had a gradient of about 1:4800.<ref>Mays, L. (Editor), ''Ancient Water Technologies'', Springer, 2010. p. 119</ref>

====Artificial rills====
((unreferenced section|date=January 2013))
[[File:Freiburg Baechle Rills.jpg|thumb|Artificial rills, known locally as ''[[Freiburg Bächle|Bächle]]'', flank several streets in the old quarter of [[Freiburg im Breisgau|Freiburg]], Germany.]]
[[File:Falaj at al ain.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|right|225px|An artificial '''rill''', part of the ''Falaj'' water transportation system, at [[Al Ain]] [[Oasis]], in the [[Abu Dhabi (emirate)|Abu Dhabi Emirate]].]]A constructed functional '''rill''' is a small canal or aqueduct of stone, brick, concrete, or other lining material, usually [[wikt:rectilinear|rectilinear]] in [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]], for [[water transportation]] from a source such as a river, spring, reservoir, [[qanat]], or aqueduct for domestic consumption or agricultural irrigation of crop land uses.

Rills were traditionally used in [[Middle East]]ern and [[Mediterranean climate]] cultures of ancient and historical eras; and other climates and continents worldwide. They are distinguished from a 'water [[ditch]]' by being lined to reduce absorption losses and to increase durability. The ''Falaj'' irrigation system at the [[Al Ain]] [[Oasis]], in present-day [[Abu Dhabi (emirate)|Abu Dhabi Emirate]], uses rills as part of its [[qanat]] water system. Sometimes in the [[Spanish language]] they are called ''[[Acequia]]s''.

Rills are also used for aesthetic purposes in landscape design. Rills are used as narrow channels of water inset into the pavement of a [[garden]], as linear [[water feature]]s, and often tiled and part of a fountain design.

The historical origins are from [[paradise garden]] religious images that first translated into ancient [[Persian Gardens]]. Rills were later exceptionally developed in the [[Moorish architecture|Moorish]] [[Spanish garden|(Spanish) Gardens]] of [[Al-andalus]], such as at the [[Alhambra]] in [[Granada]]; and also in other [[Islam]]ic gardens, cultures, and countries. Early 20th century examples are in the [[Plaza de España (Seville)|María Luisa Park]] gardens in Seville, Spain; and at the [[Casa del Herrero]] gardens in [[Montecito, California]].

===Tunnels===
Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. A version of this common in North Africa and Central Asia that has vertical wells at regular intervals is called a qanat. One historic example found in Syria, the Qanat Firaun, extends over 100 kilometers.<ref>((Cite news | url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/rome-s-tremendous-tunnel-the-ancient-world-s-longest-underground-aqueduct-a-612718.html | title=Rome's Tremendous Tunnel: The Ancient World's Longest Underground Aqueduct| newspaper=Spiegel Online| date=2009-03-11| last1=Schulz| first1=Matthias))</ref>

===Pipes===
[[File:LA Aqueduct Antelope Valley.jpg|thumb|The [[Los Angeles Aqueduct]]]]
((See also|Pipeline transport#Water))
Modern aqueducts may also make extensive use of pipelines. Pipelines are useful for transporting water over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where open channels are poor choices due to considerations of [[evaporation]], freezing, pollution, or environmental impact. They can also be used to carry [[Water treatment|treated water]].

==Uses==
Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops. [[Archimedes]] invented the [[Archimedes' screw|water screw]] to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.

Another use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with drinking water. They also help drought-prone areas with [[water supply]]. Some of the Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In [[California]], United States, three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are from the [[Owens River]] area, and a third is from the Colorado River.

In modern [[civil engineering]] projects, detailed study and analysis of [[open-channel flow]] is commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution.

In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials but significant amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce, these canals are being lined with concrete, [[polymer]]s, or impermeable soil. In some cases, a new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during construction.


==See also==
((Portal|Water))
*[[Acequia]]
*[[Zanja]]
*[[Qanat]]
*[[Earthquake engineering]]
*[[Goldfields Water Supply Scheme]]
*[[Leat]]
*[[List of aqueducts]]
*[[List of canal aqueducts in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of Roman bridges#Aqueduct bridges|List of Roman aqueduct bridges]]
*[[Navigable aqueduct]]
*[[Pipeline transport|Pipeline]] – some used to carry water
*[[Roman architecture]]
*[[Roman engineering]]
*[[Sanitation in Ancient Rome]]
*[[Water resources]]

==Notes==
((Reflist|colwidth=40em))

==References==
((Refbegin|colwidth=40em))
*[[Sextus Julius Frontinus]], ''[http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae]'' (''On the water management of the city of Rome''), Translated by [[R. H. Rodgers]], 2003, [[University of Vermont]]
*Chanson, H. (2002). [http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view.php?pid=UQ:11123 Certains Aspects de la Conception hydrauliques des Aqueducs Romains. ('Some Aspect on the Hydraulic Design of Roman Aqueducts.')] Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 6/7, pp.&nbsp;43–57 (ISSN 0018-6368)
*Chanson, H. (2008). [http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:138266 "The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should we learn?"] in Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 Ahupua'a, ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA, Invited Keynote lecture, 13–16 May, R.W. Badcock Jr and R. Walton Eds., 16 pages (((ISBN|978-0-7844-0976-3)))
((Refend))

==Further reading==
*Aicher, Peter J. 1995. ''Guide to the aqueducts of ancient Rome.'' Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci.
*Beltrán Lloris, Francisco. 2006. "An irrigation decree from Roman Spain: The ''Lex Rivi Hiberiensis''." ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 96: 147–97.
*Bruun, Christer. 1991. ''The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration.'' Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
*Coulton, J. J. 1987. "Roman aqueducts in Asia Minor." In ''Roman architecture in the Greek world.'' Edited by Sarah Macready and Frederick Hugh Thompson, 72–84. London: Society of Antiquaries.
*Frankel, R. 2002. "The Hellenistic aqueduct of Akko-Ptolemais." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology (Supplementary Studies)'' 46: 82–87.
*Grewe, Klaus. 2008. "Tunnels and canals." In ''The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world.'' Edited by John Peter Oleson, 319–36. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
*Hodge, A. Trevor. 1992. ''Roman aqueducts and water supply.'' London: Duckworth.
*Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton. 2001. ''Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome.'' Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
*Wilson, Andrew I. 1999. "Deliveries ''extra urbem'': Aqueducts and the countryside." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 12: 314–32.
*--. 2008. "Hydraulic engineering and water supply." In ''The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world.'' Edited by John Peter Oleson, 337–68. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

==External links==
((Commons category|Aqueducts (water supply)))
*[http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/rome/ Waterhistory.org: Imperial Rome Water Systems]
*[http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ Romanaqueducts.info: 600 Roman aqueducts, with 25 descriptions in detail]

((Authority control))

[[Category:Aqueducts| ]]
[[Category:Canals|*]]
[[Category:Water supply infrastructure|*]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures by type]]
[[Category:Routes]]
[[Category:Water supply]]
[[Category:Ancient inventions]]

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Module:Language/data/iana languages (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana regions (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana suppressed scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Language/data/iana variants (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Message box (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/ambox.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Message box/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Namespace detect/data (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/configuration (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Ns has subpages (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/disambiguation (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/setindex (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/softredirect (view source) (protected)
Module:Portal (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Portal/images/w (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Portal/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:SDcat (view source) (protected)
Module:Side box (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Side box/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:String (view source) (protected)
Module:TableTools (view source) (protected)
Module:Unicode data (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Unicode data/scripts (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Unsubst (view source) (protected)
Module:WikidataIB (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:WikidataIB/nolinks (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:WikidataIB/titleformats (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Wikitext Parsing (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Yesno (view source) (protected)

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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)"