An Asian fetish is a strong sexual or romantic preference for people of Asian descent or heritage. The term usually refers to women specifically of East or Southeast Asian descent,^{[1][2][3][4][5]} though this may also include those of South Asian descent.^[5][6]

The origins of the Asian fetish are unclear. White male Dutch colonists fetishized Southeast Asian women in colonial Indonesia, on the basis of the darker skin and hair color of the local women.^[7] Similar accounts were reported in other colonised territories such as British India where it was common for English men to have Indian mistresses against a backdrop where Indian women were sexualised through, what scholars describe as, a typical colonial gaze and viewed as seductive, sensual and exotic.^[5] After World War 2, Japanese women gained prominence in American beauty pageants, at a time when large numbers of Japanese war brides were entering the United States.^[8]

Studies of physical attractiveness have demonstrated that Asian women are ranked as the most physically attractive women in Western countries,^[9] and they are the most desired women in online dating.^[10][11] In addition to being over-represented in pornographic films, there is widespread hyper-sexualization of Asian women in popular culture, including hip-hop music videos.^[9]

The psychological effects of the fetish are unclear. Some authors have suggested that the fetish may be flattering to Asian women,^[12] while others believe it is harmful to their self-esteem, as it can reduce their self-worth to their physical attributes.^[13][14] Further research has shown that the fetishization of Asian women may fuel resentment in white women, who feel that their status is downgraded by Asian women's popularity.^[15]

The derogatory term yellow fever is sometimes used to describe the fetishization of East Asians and Southeast Asian women by non-Asians, as well as having a preference for dating or marrying women of East Asian and Southeast Asian origin.^[4] The usage of "yellow" stems from the color terminology for race that is sometimes applied to people of East Asian descent.

History of origins

It has been posited that modern Asian fetishism in the United States emerged in the aftermath of United States-led wars in Asia.^[16][17]

In the 1800s, after the opening of Japan by Matthew Perry, word began to spread in the United States about the seductive femininity of Asian women.^[18] Nationalistic fears that Asian women would seduce White men and destroy White families led to the passage Page Act of 1875, which prevented Chinese women from entering the United States.^[18][19] However, another purpose of the ban was to limit the reproduction of the Chinese working class in America.^[20]

As early as the 1920s, it was noticed that White Dutch men preferred South East Asian women over White women.^[7] When Indonesia was a colony of the Netherlands, a new beauty ideal was established, which ranked local women with light brown skin and lustrous black hair at the top.^[7] The American consul general to Indonesia remarked that, to the average man, a mixed-race Indonesian woman was considered more attractive than a "pure" White woman, because White women's complexions were too pale.^[7] The legacy of this colonial fetishization continues to be reflected in local literature, where women with European features (such as blond hair) are pitied, and it is written that "a golden-colored skin is the greatest gift that Allah can bestow upon a woman".^[7]

After World War II, the U.S. military took control of Japan, and U.S. soldiers began to interact with Japanese women.^[21] Although the American military initially forbid relations with Japanese women; the U.S. servicemen were "enamored" by the femininity of Japanese women, and formed relationships with them anyway.^[21] There was a perception that Japanese women were superior to American women,^[21] and there was a widespread sentiment "that a Japanese woman's heart was twice as big as those of her American sisters".^[21]

In 1959, Akiko Kojima, a Japanese woman, became the first woman of color to win the Miss Universe beauty pageant. That same year, Miyoshi Umeki, also a Japanese woman, won an Academy Award. This period marked the beginning of the phenomenon known as the 'Oriental wave' – during which Asian women first gained prominence in Western media.^[8] The wave mainstreamed a certain type of Asian femininity: slender, shy, and intelligent; yet also sexual.^[8] It also marked the beginning of the end of White women's dominance as the mainstream beauty ideal in America.^[8]

Terminology and usage of yellow fever

A common term used for Asian fetishization (particularly with East and Southeast Asians) is yellow fever. The term is used as a derogatory pun on the disease of the same name, comparing those with a fetish for East and Southeast Asians or "Orientals" to people who are infected with a disease.^[1]

Yellow fever is used in Asian fetishization to refer to the color terminology of people of East Asian descent (and some Southeast Asians) because historically, persons of East Asian heritage have been described as "yellow people" based on the tone of their skin.^[22]

Hwang argues that this phenomenon is caused by the stereotyping of Asians in Western society. The term yellow fever is analogous to the term jungle fever, a derogatory expression used for racial fetishism associated with dating between different races.^[22]

Research on racial preferences

A 1995 study found that a diverse sample of men in the United States generally rated Asian American and Hispanic American women as more attractive than White American and African-American women, and that this seemed to correlate with physical features shared between the Asian and Hispanic women.^[23]

In 2007, a study using a sample of 400 Columbia University students did not find evidence of a preference among White men for women of East Asian descent. The study implied that most people preferred to date within their own race. However, the study also noted that 47% of all hookups were inter-racial, with the majority being White male-Asian female pairings.^[24] This was attributed to the preference neutrality of the Asian women who participated. According to Matthew Johnson, the participants in this study consistently made decisions that contradicted their stated preferences.^[25]

A 2013 study, which used a sample of 2.4 million online interactions, found that Black, White, and Hispanic men preferred Asian women.^[26]

A 2018 study using a sample of 187,000 daters found that Asian women were the most desired group of women.^[27]

In 2012, an experiment conducted in England found that Asian women were rated as more attractive than White and Black women. It was proposed that because Asian women's features are perceived as more feminine, they are considered more attractive than other women, which explains the high rate of interracial marriages between Asian women and White men. A 2018 experiment conducted in Australia supported these findings, as both Asian and Australian participants perceived Asian women's features as more feminine than white women's.^[28]

This research is consistent with the hyper-sexualization of Asian women, which explains the Asian fetish, the high outmarriage rate of Asian women, their increased sexual capital relative to Asian men, and their ranking at the top of the hierarchy of female attractiveness.^[29]

According to research published by the University of South Carolina in 2020, male and female participants rated Asian women as more attractive than White women.^[30] This experiment replicated prior studies which found that Asian women's features are perceived as more feminine than White women's.^[31] It was proposed that the higher femininity ratings for Asian women would be beneficial for Asian women's sexual capital.^[32]

Psychological effects of fetishization

Research based on responses from a few Asian-Americans indicates that the fetish creates a psychological burden on people of East and Southeast Asian descent.^[33] Robin Zheng writes that they have been reported to experience doubt and suspicion that men who find them attractive may be primarily attracted to their features and culture perceived as exotic rather than their personal traits or characteristics.^[22] People that are the targets of these racial fetishes may have experiences associated with feelings of depersonalization.^[22] The fetishized body of an East or Southeast Asian woman becomes a symbol of other people's desires; she may not be valued for who she is, but what she has come to represent.^[34] Racial depersonalization can be especially hurtful to these women in situations where being recognized as an individual is important, such as non-sexual romantic relationships, because a person may feel unloved if they sense they could be replaced by someone with similar qualities.^[22]

However, Phoebe Eng notes that not all Asian women consider the Asian fetish a bad thing. Some regard the Asian fetish as flattering, or even liberating.^[12] According to research conducted at the University of California, the widespread preference for Asian women can boost the self esteem of Asian women by making them feel exceptionally 'pretty', however, this also causes resentment among White women, who feel that the popularity of Asian women has reduced their own status.^[15]

Zheng has also noted that, in spite of her argument that the Asian fetish has harmful psychological consequences for Asian women, some Asian women may exploit the sexual capital afforded by the fetish, in order to attract wealthier white men, as in the case of Sarong party girls.^[35]

Another effect of this fetish is that it may cause its targets to feel like an other, because they are separated and held to a different standard.^[22] Asian-American women report being complimented in ways that imply they are attractive because of their Asian ancestry.^[36] This can affect a woman's self-worth and self-respect.^[22]

Men with a preference for women of East or Southeast Asian descent may also affected by the stigma of their perceived fetish.^[22] In Robin Zheng's view, these men may be seen as inferior by others, because of the stereotype about the feminine superiority of Asian women, which reduces the status of Asian women to objects that are only valuable for sex and not as complete human beings. However, according to social research by Kumiko Nemoto, Asian American woman and White man couples reported little social or familial hostility, especially compared to Asian American man and White woman couples. They were sometimes even envied by other men, because of a shared cultural notion that Asian women are highly desirable.^[37]

It has been argued that the notion of an Asian fetish creates the unnecessary and erroneous perception of multiracial relationships as being characterized by "patriarchal, racist power structures" in relationships.^[38] However, research conducted by Kumiko Nemoto has found that second-generation Asian women in interracial relationships with white men often earn more money and have higher education than their partners. She also found that Asian women view these relationships as less patriarchal and more egalitarian.^[39]

Some research has sought to determine how the mainstream American culture might affect Asian-American body satisfaction. Several studies say that Asian women are more satisfied with their bodies than white women, while others say they have comparable levels of dis-satisfaction.^[40]

Interracial marriages

A 1998 article in The Washington Post states that 36% of young Asian Pacific American men born in the United States married White women, and 45% of U.S.-born Asian Pacific American women took White husbands during the year of publication.^[41] In 2008, 9.4% of Asian American men married to White American women while 26.4% of Asian American women were married to White American men.^[42] 7% of married Asian American men have a non-Asian spouse, 17.1% of married Asian American women are married to a White spouse, and 3.5% of married Asian men have a spouse classified as "other" according to U.S. census racial categories.^[43] 75% of Asian/White marriages involve an Asian woman and a White man.^[43] There was a spike in White male, Asian female marriages during and following the U.S. Army's involvement with wars in Asia, including the Pacific War of World War 2, Korea, and Vietnam.^[43] In 2010, 219,000 Asian American men married White American women compared to 529,000 White American men who married Asian American women.^[44]

Kumiko Nemoto writes that since the beginning of the twentieth century, there has been a stereotype of the Asian woman as subservient, loyal, and family oriented.^[45][46] After World War II, particularly feminine images of Asian women made interracial marriage between Asian American women and White men popular.^[45] Asian femininity and White masculinity are seen as a sign of modern middle-class manhood.^[45][46] Postcolonial and model minority femininity may attract some White men to Asian and Asian American women and men see this femininity as the perfect marital dynamic.^[45]  Some White men racialize Asian women as "good wives" or "model minorities" because of how Asian women are stereotyped as being particularly feminine.^[45][46]

In preparation for a documentary on Asian fetish called Seeking Asian Female, Chinese-American filmmaker Debbie Lum interviewed non-Asian men who posted online personal ads exclusively seeking Asian women. Things that the men found appealing in Asian women included long black hair, a "mysterious" appearance with dark eyes, possibly increased consideration for their partner, subtlety and quietness, as well as Asian women's eyelids. Lum characterized the preconceived stereotype associated with an Asian fetish as an obsession with seeking "somebody submissive, traditional, docile... the perfect wife who is not going to talk back", but found she had to overcome stereotypes and expectations just like the participants did.^[47]

In interviews done by Bitna Kim, "Caucasian" men explain their fetish for Asian women. The Caucasian men interviewed fantasize that an Asian woman possesses both beauty and brains, that she is "sexy, intelligent, successful, professional, caring, and family oriented"; that she does not wear "White girl clothes" and heavy makeup, and that they are not high maintenance.^[48] Hence, the men believe that Asian women have respectable mannerisms.^[48] These men see Asian women to be exotic, thus desirable, because of their supposed mysterious beauty and possession of a physical appearance perceived to be petite.^[48] Sexually, the men in these interviews had a commonality. While almost all disagreed with describing Asian women as submissive, they all believed that Asian women have submissive sex ("liking to explore new positions, being willing to experiment, or enjoying kinky sex, such as spanking"). They believed that an Asian woman was agreeable and did not mind pleasing men.^[48] These interviews show that some "Caucasian" men with Asian fetish believe that an Asian woman embodies a perfect wife as a "princess in public and a whore in the bedroom".^[48]

Historically, the number of Thai women marrying Western men began to rise in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat's economic policies which attracted foreign investment and Western men to Thailand. There is a social stigma in the country against Thai women marrying White men, who are also referred to as farang (a term used for people of European origin), but research published in 2015 indicated that an increasing number of young middle-class Thai women were marrying foreign men. A generation earlier, Thai women marrying foreign men had mostly been working class.^[49] Since 2002, marriages between Swedish men and Thai women have become increasingly common.^[50]

Sources indicate that Sri Lanka is popular among Western "marriage bureaus" which specialize in the pairing of men who were "Europeans, North Americans and other westerners" with foreign women.^[51] The first and largest wave of Sri Lankan immigrants to Denmark were Sinhalese women who came to the country in the 1970s to marry Danish men they had met back in Sri Lanka.^[52] Statistics also show that marriages of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian men with Thai or Indian women tend to last longer than those of Indian men marrying Danish, Swedish, or Norwegian wives.^[53]

Filipina, Thai, and Sri Lankan women have traveled as mail-order brides to Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.^[54] Venny Villapando writes that many of the countries affected by the modern mail-order bride business, typically those in East and South-East Asia, have a history of US military involvement. Soldiers stationed in these countries developed ideas of Asian women as sex workers, bargirls and geishas, and applied the resultant stereotype of sexualized obedience to Asian-American women. The marketing techniques used by mail-order bride companies generally reinforce this stereotype.^[55] Statistics detailing the sponsorship of spouses and fiancées to Australia from 1988 to 1991 show that more women from the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia, South Korea, and India were sponsored for citizenship than men from the same countries.^[56]

Tourism

Sex tourism refers to a phenomenon where individuals, generally heterosexual men from wealthier countries, will travel to other countries, in search for sexual experiences. Several countries in Southeast Asia, particularly with strong economic disparities with western countries, have become destinations for sex tourism. Some of these countries include Thailand, the Philippines, Cambodia and Vietnam.^{[57][58][irrelevant citation]}

Data published in 1999 indicated that an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 German men annually traveled abroad for sex tourism, with the Philippines, Thailand, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Hong Kong as their main destinations.^[59] For some White men, sex tourism to countries such as Thailand is built around a fantasy that includes the possibility of finding love and romance. According to Dr. David Jedlicka's 1983 study, this idea is based on the stereotype of "the Oriental woman" who is considered to be beautiful and sexually exciting as well as caring, compliant, and submissive.^[60] Kimberly Hoang writes that there may be mistaken conflation of "submission" with "care".^[61]

Although not as widely recognized as male sex tourism, there have also been cases of western female sex tourism in Indonesia, including Bali.^[62][63] Also in the past decade, an increasing number of female tourists have been drawn to South Korea by its popular culture, earning them the nickname "Hallyu tourists" among locals. These visitors often indulge in experiences showcased in K-dramas, such as sampling local dishes, exploring filming locations, and attending live K-pop performances. Within this group, a subset also travels to South Korea with the hope of finding a Korean boyfriend to fulfill a fantasy. Typically, they are heterosexual women in their early to mid-20s from various parts of the world, including North America, Western Europe, and Russia. However, a concerning aspect of this trend is the fetishization of Korean men, which involves overlooking their individuality and expecting them to conform to the portrayal of Korean leading men in K-dramas, despite the potential disparity with reality.^[64][65]

Anecdotal reports have suggested that western women visiting South Korea, known as "Hallyu tourists" (drawn by K-drama culture) may fetishize Korean men. Some authors are concerned that this trend simplifies Korean men into stereotypes, ignoring their complexity and the realities of relationships.^[66][67] However, according to Sameera Khan, this is unrelated to the Asian fetish.^[65]

In popular media

Mirroring the larger mainstream culture, within hip-hop culture, Asian women have long been fetishized.^{[68][69][70][71][72]} The hip hop group 2 Live Crew eroticized Asian women in their 1988 hit single "Me So Horny", which topped the charts in the Netherlands.^[73] The song was so sexually explicit that the State of Florida banned its sale, however the ban was later overturned after 2 Live Crew filed a free speech lawsuit.^[74][75] In later songs, 2 Live Crew spoke about their fetish for Asian women, and their desire to have sex with Japanese women.^[68] Asian models were featured prominently in their music videos.^[68]

According to Marenda Tran, Asian women in the media tend to be portrayed in two ways: as an exotic foreigner, docile and nonthreatening and sexual but also innocent; or as the nerd who is still aesthetically pleasing, but also emotionless and career-oriented. This leads many Asian women to believe that they have to be in one of these boxes. It tends to convey the message that if they are smart, they cannot be sexual; or, if they are sexual, they tend to not be aware of it.^[76] By the late 2010s, movies such as Crazy Rich Asians and The Farewell began to break these boundaries, but they are movies that center around the Asian experience, allowing for more diversity across Asian characters.

In her essay "Hateful Contraries: Media Images of Asian Women", British filmmaker Pratibha Parmar comments that the media's imagery of Asian women is "contradictory" in that it represents them as "completely dominated by their men, mute and oppressed" while also showing them as "sexually erotic creatures".^[77]

In her essay Lotus Blossoms Don't Bleed: Images of Asian Women, American filmmaker Renee Tajima-Peña identifies two basic stereotypes of Asian women in the United States.. The "Lotus Blossom Baby" is a feminine and delicate sexual-romantic object. In contrast, the "Dragon Lady" is treacherous and devious, and in some cases, a madam. Tajima suggests that this view of Asian women contributes to the existence of the Asian mail-order bride industry in the US.^[78]

Pornography

Several studies have implied that Asian women are over-represented in the American pornography industry. Asian women make up 17% of all female performers, despite being roughly 2.5% of the U.S. population. Asian men also appear to be considerably over-represented, at 10% of male actors.^[79] "Asian" is the most popular and sought after genre of pornography.^[80]

East Asian trans women or "ladyboys" are heavily over-represented in pornography, and are highly desired as potential mates, as they are fetishized for their physical features. According to Adult Video News, the highest-selling trans pornography depicts Asian trans women.^[81][82]

A 2010 study of Pornhub searches found that the term "Asian women" was searched for 17.9 million times in one year, while "Blonde women" was searched for only 3.5 million times, which reflects the extreme popularity of Asian women in pornography, and their supplanting of White women as the beauty ideal in the West.^[83] In 2021, "Japanese", and "Asian" were the most searched terms on Pornhub.^[84] Jennifer Lynn Gossett and Sarah Byrne conducted a content-analysis study of 32 pornographic websites that advertised scenes depicting the rape or torture of women and found that nearly half of the sites used depictions of 34 images depicted Asian women as victims of rape, while 24 images of white women could be found. No images of black women being raped could be found.^[85] However, according to Emily Rothman, more recent research suggests that Asian women are treated less aggressively than other races of women in American pornography, and are even less objectified, but also have less agency in scenes than the other women.^[79]