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((Short description|Major category of doctrine in the Catholic Church, equivalent to a religious ethics))
((More citations needed|date=June 2015))
((Catholic Church sidebar))
((Catholic philosophy |expanded=all))
'''Catholic moral theology''' is a major category of [[doctrine]] in the [[Catholic Church]], equivalent to a [[religious ethics]]. Moral theology encompasses [[Catholic social teaching]], Catholic [[medical ethics]], [[sexual ethics]], and various doctrines on individual moral [[virtue]] and moral theory. It can be distinguished as dealing with "how one is to act", in contrast to dogmatic theology which proposes "what one is to believe".

==Overview==
Sources of Catholic moral theology include both the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], and philosophical [[ethics]] such as [[natural law]] that are seen as compatible with Catholic doctrine. Moral theology was mostly undifferentiated from theology in general during the [[Church Fathers|patristic era]], and is found in the [[homilies]], letters and commentaries on [[Religious text|Scripture]] of the early Church fathers.

Examples of Catholic moral theologians include [[Alphonsus Liguori|St. Alphonsus Liguori]] (author of ''[[Moral Theology (Liguori)|Theologia Moralis]]''), [[Bartolomé de Medina (theologian)|Bartolomé Medina]] (originator of [[Catholic probabilism|Probabilism]]), Dominic Prümmer ([[Compensationism]]), [[Bernhard Häring]] (Dialogical Ethics), [[Servais-Théodore Pinckaers|Servais Pinckaers]] ([[Nouvelle théologie]]), [[Germain Grisez]] and [[John Finnis]] ([[New natural law|New Natural Law]]).

Moral theology tends to be advanced most authoritatively through official statements of doctrine, such as papal [[encyclicals]], which are based on the dogmatic pronouncements of [[Ecumenical Councils]] (e.g., [[Vatican II]]), [[Sacred Scriptures]], and [[Sacred Tradition]]. In addition, moral theologians publish their own works and write in a variety of [[academic journal|journals]] devoted in whole, or in part to moral theology. These scholarly journals are helpful in making the theology of the Church more clear and accessible to others, and serve as a forum in which scholarly discussion of understanding and application of issues occurs. However, these journals ''per se'' do not add or remove anything from Catholic teaching.

The [[curriculum]] for [[Formation in the Catholic Church|formation]] of [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|priests]] commonly includes required and elective courses in Catholic moral theology.

==History==
===Middle Ages===
During the [[Middle Ages]], moral theology developed in precision and scope through [[ethics in religion|scholasticism]]. Much of the Catholic Church's current moral theology, especially regarding natural law, is based in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' by [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], which is regarded as one of the best treatises of Catholic moral theology.<ref>((Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Moral Theology |volume=14 |first=Augustinus  |last=Lehmkuhl))
</ref>

===Baroque period and Reformation===
Although many theologians found inspiration in Aquinas from his death onwards, moral theology did not become its own separate field of scholarship until after the council of Trent at the dawn of the baroque period and the [[reformation]], one of the wishes of the council fathers was to set out the more rigorous training of priests which would lead to the genesis of [[Seminary|seminaries]]. Through the renewal of learning in the Church [[Specialization of knowledge|specialisation]] would begin to take root in the [[curriculum]], with theology becoming fragmented into different 'fields' such as [[Dogmatic theology|dogmatic]], moral, [[Mystical theology|spiritual theology]] and so on. This would lead to the birth of the genre of the 'Manual'.

===Birth of manualism===

'''Manualism''' designates an approach to [[Christian ethics]], especially in Catholic moral theology,<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Theological Ethics - Page 508
Gilbert Meilaender, William Werpehowski · 2007
FOUND INSIDE – PAGE 508
the manualists: 'no period is more important in the history of moral theology than the late 16th, 17th, and early 18th centuries'. But he then added, 'this is perhaps less a criticism of M. than a reXection on our almost complete ...</ref><ref>((cite journal |last1=Boersma |first1=Hans |title=Nature and the Supernatural in la nouvelle théologie: The Recovery of a Sacramental Mindset |journal=New Blackfriars |date=2012 |volume=93 |issue=1043 |pages=34–46 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-2005.2011.01434.x |jstor=43251594 ))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Hart |first=David Bentley 
|author-link=David Bentley Hart |title=Theological Territories: A David Bentley Hart Digest |date=2020 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=978-0-268-10717-8 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv19m638q.15|jstor=j.ctv19m638q 
))((page needed|date=May 2023))</ref><!--<ref>((cite journal |last1=McGuckian |first1=Michael |title=John Cuthbert Ford, SJ: Moral Theologian at the End of the Manualist Era. By Eric Marcelo O. Genilo, S. J. |journal=The Heythrop Journal |date=March 2010 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=339–339 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2265.2009.00564_14.x ))</ref>--><ref>((Cite book |last=Genilo |first=Eric Marcelo O. |title=John Cuthbert Ford, SJ: Moral Theologian at the End of the Manualist Era |date=2007 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |jstor=j.ctt2tt41x |isbn=978-1-58901-181-6))((page needed|date=May 2023))</ref><!--<ref>((cite book |last1=Morrow |first1=Maria C. |chapter=From Responsibility to Freedom: Changes in the Conception of Sin among Theologians |pages=79–116 |jstor=j.ctt1j0ptck.9  |title=Sin in the Sixties |date=2016 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |isbn=978-0-8132-2898-3 ))</ref><ref>((cite book |last1=Petri |first1=Thomas |chapter=From Thomas Aquinas to the Manualists |pages=11–44 |jstor=j.ctt1d8hbhf.6 |title=Aquinas and the Theology of the Body |date=2016 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |isbn=978-0-8132-2847-1 ))</ref>--><ref>((Cite web |last=Senz |first=Nicholas |title=Shifting Away From Manualism: On Forming Consciences |url=https://churchlifejournal.nd.edu/articles/pruning-prudence-on-forming-consciences-not-replacing-them/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=Church Life Journal |language=en))</ref><!--<ref>((cite book |last1=Hawksley |first1=Theodora |last2=Archer |first2=Margaret S |last3=Cahill |first3=Lisa Sowle |chapter=How Critical Realism Can Help Catholic Social Teaching |pages=9–18 |jstor=j.ctv10crch2.5 |editor1-first=Daniel K |editor1-last=Finn |title=Moral Agency within Social Structures and Culture: A Primer on Critical Realism for Christian Ethics |date=2020 |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-1-62616-801-5 ))</ref><ref>((cite journal |last1=Crotty |first1=Nicholas |title=V CATHOLIC MORAL THEOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL RESPONSIBILITY |journal=Religious Education |date=January 1971 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=44–48 |doi=10.1080/0034408710660107 ))</ref><ref>((cite journal |last1=Berkman |first1=J. |title=How Important is the Doctrine of Double Effect for Moral Theology? Contextualizing the Controversy |journal=Christian Bioethics |date=1 August 1997 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=89–114 |doi=10.1093/cb/3.2.89 ))</ref>--><ref>((cite journal |last1=Engelhardt |first1=H. Tristram |title=Orthodox Christian Bioethics: Some Foundational Differences from Western Christian Bioethics |journal=Studies in Christian Ethics |date=November 2011 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=487–499 |doi=10.1177/0953946811415018 |s2cid=147395651 |quote=the Counter-Reformation, the manualist tradition produced a wealth of reflections between))</ref><ref>((cite journal |last1=Wicks |first1=Jared |title=Review of Foundational Theology. Jesus and the Church |journal=Gregorianum |date=1986 |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=374–376 |jstor=23577203 ))</ref><!--<ref>Flanagan, P. (2013). James F. Keenan, A History of Catholic Moral Theology in the Twentieth Century: From Confessing Sins to Liberating Consciences (New York: Continuum, 2010), pp. viii+ 248,£ 17.99, ISBN 978-0-8264-2929-2 (pbk). International Journal of Public Theology, 7(2), 229-230.</ref>-->, associated with Alphonsus Liguori<ref>Haddorff, David W. "Relying on Aquinas, Prudently." (1998): 562-564.
position of Alphonsus Liguori. It was not only Liguori's manualist method of applying...</ref><ref name=":2">((Cite journal |last=KROM |first=MICHAEL P. |title=Review |url=https://jmt.scholasticahq.com/article/13360.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Moral Theology]] |quote=manualist tradition’s focus on the distinction between material and formal cooperation with evil as well as on the intention of those who so cooperate is at least implicit in our modes of argumentation.<br/>Flannery begins by showing the inadequacies of the approach to cooperation with evil found in St. Alphonsus Liguori and the subsequent manualist tradition. Most pointedly, Liguori uses Aquinas’s theory of morally indifferent acts in order to clarify his own position on material cooperation and yet, as becomes even clearer in the later manualists, this ends up revealing the problems with his own analysis. In chapter 2, Flannery finds the answer to these problems by focusing on Aquinas’s account of how circumstances factor into the morality of indifferent acts. Rather than focus on the intention of the cooperator, Aquinas looks at the broader issues of whether or not an action is consistent with reason, justice, and charity. Chapter 3 helps to clarify all of this via the issue of scandal: Alphonsus ignores all others affected by acts of cooperation as well as “how the actions performed relate to the ultimate end and order of the moral universe” (122).))</ref> and the tradition of "moral manuals" (instruction manuals teaching explicitly right and wrong)<ref>((cite book
|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Jesuits
|author=[[Thomas Worcester]]
|quote=After the Council of Trent until the twentieth century, moral theology was shaped by the moral manuals used in seminaries to form future confessors. Manualist moral theology was concerned with avoidance of sin and obedience
|date=2017))</ref><ref name=":4">((Cite journal |last=Hart |first=David Bentley |date=2015-06-01 |title=Romans 8:19-22 |url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2015/06/romans-81922 |journal=[[First Things]] |language=English |publisher=Institute on Religion and Public Life |issue=254 |pages=72–74 |quote=In theological circles, the term "Thomism" (or "traditional Thomism" or "manualist Thomism" or "two-tier Thomism") typically refers not to the writings of Thomas himself, or even to any given scholar [...] who happens to study Thomas's thought, but to a particular faction of Baroque neoscholasticism, which began in the sixteenth century, principally with [[Domingo Banez]], and which largely died out in the twentieth, principally with [[Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange]]. <br/> This was the tradition that produced the infamous Thomist "manuals," and that a succession of Catholic scholars [...] assailed as an impoverished early modern distortion of the medieval synthesis,))</ref><ref name=":0">((Cite web |date=2022-12-15 |title=A brief history of the Catholic Church's teaching on mercy and sin |url=https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2022/12/15/keenan-ethics-catholic-sin-morality-244273 |access-date=2023-03-12 |website=[[America (magazine)|America Magazine]] |language=en

|quote=In fact, scholasticism and not manualism better conveys the tradition’s long-term interests and purpose.))</ref><ref name=":3">((cite magazine |author-link=John J. McDermott (philosopher) |last=McDermott |first=John |title=The Collapse of the Manualist Tradition |url=https://www.faith.org.uk/article/january-february-2014-the-collapse-of-the-manualist-tradition |magazine=Faith Magazine |year=2014 |quote= Since manualist moralists sought to uphold universal norms even while exercising casuistry for difficult cases, it became fashionable to denounce casuistry and leave individual choices to the individual’s informed conscience. For that, manuals were superfluous, especially once [[proportionalism]] was introduced into Catholic morality. Universal concepts no longer satisfied.))</ref> which came from him.<ref>Atkinson, Gary M. "Cooperation with Evil: Thomistic Tools of Analysis." ''[[American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly]]'' 95.2 (2021): 337-339.</ref>

[[File:Kloster St Josef Neumarkt - Innenraum 32.jpg|thumb|[[Alphonsus Liguori]]]]

The manualist tradition has an ambivalent relationship with [[scholasticism]].<ref>((cite journal |last1=Flanagan |first1=Patrick |title=James F. Keenan, A History of Catholic Moral Theology in the Twentieth Century: From Confessing Sins to Liberating Consciences (New York: Continuum, 2010), pp. viii + 248, £17.99, ISBN 978-0-8264-2929-2 (pbk) |journal=International Journal of Public Theology |date=2013 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=229–230 |doi=10.1163/15697320-12341290 
|quote=neo-scholastic Manualist tradition in the second chapter ))</ref><ref>((cite journal |last1=Breckenridge |first1=Robert L |title=Gallagher, John A., 'Time Past, Time Future: An Historical Study of Catholic Moral Theology' (Book Review) |journal=Church History |volume=62 |issue=1 |date=March 1993 |pages=101 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/fe86ae8724ef2c7453b9394f2c49a054/1 |quote=neo-Thomist manualist tradition ))</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">((Cite journal |last=Curran |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Curran (theologian) |date=1995 |title=Thomas Joseph Bouquillon: Americanist, Neo-Scholastic, or Manualist? |url=https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/ctsa/article/view/4060 |journal=Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America |quote=His [ [[Thomas Bouquillon]]'s] neo-scholastic adherence to Thomas Aquinas served as the ultimate basis for his criticism of the manuals.))</ref> [[David Bentley Hart]]<ref name=":4" /> among others<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> state that much of contemporary [[Thomism]] has more manualism than [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]] himself.

The manualist tradition is related to ((annotated link|casuistry)).<ref name=":3" />

Manualism is associated with the theology surrounding artificial birth control.<ref>Petri, Thomas. Aquinas and the Theology of the Body. CUA Press, 2016.
|quote=... in response to the manualist tradition rather than to Aquinas's ... successively shown the shift
of manualist theology away from the work of ... of the manualist tradition that the birth control de- ...</ref>

The first manual of moral theology was written by the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]], [[Juan Azor]] in three volumes, his ''Institutionum Moralium'' published in the 17th century''.'' Although claiming patrimony to Aquinas, [[nominalism]] was most prolific at the time among the [[intellectual]] elite which seems to have influenced Azor's outlook in his work, instead of focusing on the [[beatitudes]] and [[virtue]]s in the moral life as Aquinas in his ''Summa'', nominalism emphasises the obligatory and legal nature of God's [[Divine command theory|commands]] as a result of the arbitrary will of God and a person's [[conscience]] before the law, many would follow Azor's model with few modifications and this outlook would influence the whole manualist tradition of moral theology which would become less dominant after [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]], during this period it became more common for alternative approaches or attempts to return to a biblical, patristic or scholastic approach before the influence of nominalism and outgrowth of [[casuistry]] which was characteristic of the [[Tridentine Council|tridentine]] period.

===Contemporary===
Contemporary Catholic moral theology is developed by acts of the [[Magisterium]], by the [[Pope]], other [[bishops]], and by the works of lay Catholic moral theologians, which include magisterial teachings, as well as (in some matters) theological opinions.

==Approaches==
*In a [[deontological]] approach, morality takes the form of a studying of "how one is to act" in relation to the laws established by the faith. See also [[Casuistry]]. 
*In a [[teleological]] approach, "how one is to act" is related to the ultimate end which is again established by the faith. See also [[Virtue ethics|Virtue Ethics]]
*In a [[Bernhard Häring#dialogic approach to Catholic moral theology|dialogical approach]], morality follows the pattern of faith directly, the "how one is to act" is related to an encounter with God through faith.<ref>[[Bernhard Häring]], ''Free and faithful in Christ''. Moral Theology for priests and laity, I/General Moral Theology. For freedom Christ has set us free (Gal 5,1), Slough 1978, ''focus on chapter 3''</ref> Moral living is response to the Logos or Word of God. "Faith in the [[Logos]]...understands moral values as responsibility, as a response to the Word, and thus gives them their intelligibility as well as their essential orientation."<ref>Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal ([[Pope Benedict XVI]]). Introduction To Christianity, 2nd Edition (Communio Books) (Kindle Locations 304-306). Ignatius Press.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Catholic teachings on sexual morality]]
* [[Catholicism]]
* [[Christian theology]]
* [[Ten Commandments in Catholic theology]]
* [[Traditionalist Catholic]]

==References==
((Reflist))

==Further reading==
*Pinckaers O.P, Servais, (1995), [[iarchive:sourcesofchristi0000pinc/mode/2up|The Sources of Christian Ethics]], Catholic University of America Press
*Prümmer O.P, Dominic (1956) [[iarchive:HandbookOfMoralTheology|Handbook of Moral Theology.]] The Mercier Press Ltd.
*((cite book|title=[[s:A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries|A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries]]|year=1925|publisher=Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.|first=Thomas|last=Slater S.J.))
*Grisez, Germain (2008). [http://twotlj.org/index.html The Way of the Lord Jesus]. Franciscan Herald Press.
*Häring CSsR, Bernhard (1978). [[iarchive:freefaithfulinch0001hari/mode/2up|Free and Faithful in Christ]] (3. Vols.) St. Paul Publications
*((Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Moral Theology |volume=14 |first=Augustinus  |last=Lehmkuhl))

===Manualism===
*Kennedy, David. The presence of Christ in the Eucharist: a strange neglect of the Resurrection?. MS thesis. [[Mary Immaculate College]], University of Limerick, 2015.
*((Cite web |last=Reno|first=R R |author-link=R. R. Reno
 |title=Theology After the Revolution ((!)) R. R. Reno |url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/05/theology-after-the-revolution |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=First Things |language=en))

((Catholic virtue ethics))
((History of Catholic theology))
((Christian theology))
((Authority control))

[[Category:Catholic moral theology| ]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Christian ethics]]

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