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((Short description|Philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge; theory of knowledge))
((Other uses|Constructivism (disambiguation)((!))Constructivism))
((Essay-like|date=January 2018))
((More citations needed|date = December 2023))
((Use dmy dates|date=February 2024))
[[File:Jean Piaget.jpg|thumb|[[Jean Piaget]] constructed the [[theory of cognitive development]] which describes how children represent and reason about the world.<ref name = "White">((cite book |last1=White |first1=Fiona Ann |last2=Hayes |first2=Brett Kenneth |last3=Livesey |first3=David James |date=2016 |title=Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to Adulthood |edition=4th |location=Melbourne, Vic. |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson Australia]] |isbn=9781486018277 |oclc=904034548))</ref><ref>((Cite journal|last=Bjorklund|first=David F.|date=1 November 2018|title=A Metatheory for Cognitive Development (or "Piaget is Dead" Revisited)|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/cdev.13019|journal=Child Development|language=en|volume=89|issue=6|pages=2288–2302|doi=10.1111/cdev.13019|pmid=29336015|via=|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082708/https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.13019|url-status=live))</ref>]]
'''Constructivism''' is a [[learning theory (education)|theory in education]] which posits that individuals or [[learner]]s do not acquire [[knowledge]] and [[understanding]] by passively [[perceiving]] it within a direct process of [[knowledge transmission]], rather they ''construct'' new understandings and knowledge through [[experience]] and [[social discourse]], integrating new [[information]] with what they already know (prior knowledge). For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school.<ref name=":13">((Cite book|last1=Nola|first1=Robert|title=Philosophy, Science, Education and Culture|last2=Irzik|first2=Gürol|date=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-3770-2|pages=175))</ref> It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in [[epistemology]] as well as [[ontology]], [[politics]], and [[ethics]].<ref>((Cite book|last=Matthews|first=Michael|title=Constructivism in Science Education: A Philosophical Examination|date=1998|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780792349242|location=Dordrecht|pages=x))</ref> The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist [[Jean Piaget]]'s [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development|theory of cognitive development]].

== Background ==
Constructivism in education has roots in [[epistemology]], a theory of knowledge concerned with the logical categories of knowledge and its justification.<ref>((Cite book|last1=Steffe|first1=Leslie P.|title=Constructivism in Education|last2=Gale|first2=Jerry|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-47608-2|location=Oxon))</ref> Epistemology also focuses on both the warranting of the subjective knowledge of a single knower and conventional knowledge. In constructivism, hence, it is recognized that the learner has prior knowledge and experiences, which are often determined by their [[social environment|social and cultural environment]]. Learning is therefore done by students' "constructing" knowledge out of their experiences. While the [[Behaviorist]] school of learning may help understand what students are doing, educators also need to know what students are thinking, and how to enrich what students are thinking.<ref name="educational psychology">Seifert, Kelvin & Sutton, Rosemary. ''[http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Educational-Psychology.pdf Educational Psychology: Second Edition] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829003228/https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Educational-Psychology.pdf |date=29 August 2017 ))''. Global Text Project, 2009, pp.&nbsp;33–37.</ref> There are scholars who state that the constructivist view emerged as a reaction to the so-called "transmission model of education", including the realist philosophy that it is based on.<ref name=":13" />

Constructivism can be traced back to [[educational psychology]] in the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their [[experience]]s and their [[idea]]s. His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is occurring with an [[individual]] as distinct from development influenced by other persons.<ref>Piaget, J., ''Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge'' (New York: Grossman, 1971).</ref> [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s (1896–1934) theory of social constructivism emphasized the importance of sociocultural learning; how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized by learners to form mental constructs through the [[zone of proximal development]]. 
Expanding upon Vygotsky's theory [[Jerome Bruner]] and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], whereby the social or informational environment offers supports (or scaffolds) for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.<ref name="educational psychology"/>

Views more focused on human development in the context of the social world include the [[Sociocultural perspective|sociocultural]] or socio-historical perspective of Lev Vygotsky and the [[situated cognition]] perspectives of [[Mikhail Bakhtin]], [[Jean Lave]] and [[Etienne Wenger]];<ref>((cite book |title=Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation|last1=Lave|first1=Jean|last2=Wenger|first2=Etienne|date=27 September 1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42374-8))((Page needed|date=January 2018))</ref> Brown, Collins and Duguid;<ref name=":2">((cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=J.S. |last2=Collins |first2=A. |last3=Duguid |first3=P. |year=1989 |title=Situated cognition and the culture of learning |url=https://api.taylorfrancis.com/content/chapters/oa-edit/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324/9780203990247-34&type=chapterpdf |journal=Educational Researcher |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=32–42 |doi=10.3102/0013189x018001032 |hdl=2142/17979 |s2cid=9824073 |hdl-access=free ))((Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes ))</ref> Newman, Griffin and Cole,<ref>((cite book|title=The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School |last1=Newman |first1=Denis |last2=Griffin |first2=Peg |last3=Cole|first3=Michael|date=28 April 1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-38942-6))((Page needed|date=January 2018))</ref> and [[Barbara Rogoff]].<ref>((cite book|title=Apprenticeship in thinking: cognitive development in social context|last=Rogoff|first=Barbara|date=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press))((Page needed|date=January 2018))</ref>

The [[concept]] of constructivism has influenced a number of disciplines, including [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[education]] and the [[history of science]].<ref>((cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title=Fallible or Inerrant? A Belated review of the "Constructivist Bible"|journal=British Journal for the History of Science|date=2004|volume=37|pages=93–8|doi=10.1017/s0007087403005338|s2cid=141028650|url=https://www.academia.edu/3426767|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082647/https://www.academia.edu/3426767|url-status=live))</ref> During its infancy, constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Piaget called these systems of knowledge "schemes."

Schemes are not to be confused with [[Schema (psychology)|''schemata (schemas)'']], a term that comes from [[Schema (psychology)|schema theory]], which is from [[Information processing (psychology)|information-processing]] perspectives on human [[cognition]]. Whereas Piaget's schemes are content-free, schemata (the plural of schema) are [[concept]]s; for example, most humans have a schema for "[[Grandparent|grandmother]]", "[[egg]]", or "[[magnet]]."

Constructivism does not refer to a specific [[pedagogy]], although it is often confused with [[Constructionist learning|constructionism]], an [[Educational sciences|educational theory]] developed by [[Seymour Papert]], inspired by constructivist and [[experiential learning]] ideas of Piaget.

Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has had wide-ranging impact on [[learning theory (education)|learning theories]] and [[teaching method]]s in education, and is an underlying theme of [[education reform]] movements in cognitive science and neuroscience.<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Carey |first1=Susan |last2=Zaitchik |first2=Deborah |last3=Bascandziev |first3=Igor |date=1 December 2015 |title=Theories of development: In dialog with Jean Piaget |journal=Developmental Review |volume=38 |pages=36–54 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.003 |issn=0273-2297|doi-access=free ))</ref>

==History==
((Further|constructivist epistemology))
Earlier [[educational philosophies]] did not place much value on what would become constructivist ideas; children's [[Play (activity)|play]] and [[exploration]] were seen as aimless and of little importance.((Citation needed |date=November 2016))  Jean Piaget did not agree with these traditional views; he saw play as an important and necessary part of the student's [[cognitive development]] and provided [[scientific evidence]] for his views. Today, constructivist theories are influential throughout the formal and informal learning sectors. In [[museum education]], constructivist theories inform [[exhibit design]]. One good example of constructivist learning in a non-formal setting is the Investigate Centre at [[Natural History Museum, London|The Natural History Museum, London]].((citation needed|date=October 2015)) Here visitors are encouraged to explore a collection of real [[natural history]] specimens, to practice some scientific skills and make discoveries for themselves. Writers who influenced constructivism include:
*[[John Dewey]] (1859–1952)
*[[Maria Montessori]] (1870–1952)
*[[Władysław Strzemiński]] (1893–1952)
*[[Jean Piaget]] (1896–1980)
*[[Lev Vygotsky]] (1896–1934)
*[[Heinz von Foerster]] (1911–2002)
*[[George Kelly (psychologist)|George Kelly]] (1905–1967)
*[[Jerome Bruner]] (1915–2016)
*[[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] (1916–2001)
*[[Paul Watzlawick]] (1921–2007)
*[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]] (1917–2010)
*[[Edgar Morin]] (born 1921)
*[[Humberto Maturana]] (1928–2021)
*[[Paulo Freire]] (1921–1997)

==Overview==

The formalization of constructivism from a within-the-human perspective is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated mechanisms by which [[information]] from the environment and ideas from the individual interact and result in internalized structures developed by learners. He identified processes of ''assimilation'' and ''accommodation'' that are key in this interaction as individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
 
When individuals ''assimilate'' new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or may decide that an event is a [[Coincidence|fluke]] and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations.
 
According to the theory, ''accommodation'' is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.

It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a [[Model aircraft|model airplane]]. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.

However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote [[active learning]], or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a. "[[discovery learning]]") as an instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below).<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006">((cite journal|last1=Kirschner|first1=P. A.|last2=Sweller|first2=J.|last3=Clark|first3=R. E.|year=2006|title=Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching|journal=[[Educational Psychologist (academic journal)|Educational Psychologist]]|volume=41|issue=2|pages=75–86|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1|hdl=1820/8951|s2cid=17067829|url=https://research.ou.nl/en/publications/f52dc05c-2fdf-4ec6-888a-1ffa9af85100|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082733/https://research.ou.nl/en/publications/why-minimal-guidance-during-instruction-does-not-work-an-analysis|url-status=live))</ref><ref name="Tobias, S. 2009">((cite book |last1=Tobias |first1=S. |last2=Duffy |first2=T. M. |year=2009 |title=Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? |location=New York |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780415994231 ))</ref> While there is much enthusiasm for constructivism as a [[Strategic design|design strategy]], according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us it would appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies."<ref name="Tobias, S. 2009"/>((Rp|4))

==Constructivist Pedagogy==
===The nature of the learner===
[[Social constructivism]] not only acknowledges the [[uniqueness]] and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process.<ref name=":0">((cite book|title=Vygotsky and the social formation of mind|last=Wertsch|first=James V.|date=1997|publisher=Harvard Univ. Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=489891986))</ref>

====The importance of the background and culture of the learner====
Social constructivisms or socioculturalism encourage the learner or learners to arrive at their version of the [[truth]], influenced by their background, [[culture]] or embedded [[worldview]]. [[History|Historical developments]] and symbol systems, such as language, [[logic]], and [[mathematical systems]], are inherited by the learner as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's [[Social relation|social interaction]] with knowledgeable members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process.<ref name=":0" />

====Responsibility for learning====
Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the student. [[Social constructivism]] thus emphasizes the importance of the student being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.<ref name=":1">((cite book|title=Constructivism in Science Education|last=Von Glasersfeld|first=Ernst|date=1998|publisher=Springer, Dordrecht|isbn=978-0-7923-4924-2|pages=11–30|chapter=Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, and Teaching|chapter-url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294754.pdf|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516193107/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294754.pdf|url-status=live))</ref>

====The motivation for learning====
Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the student concerns the level and source of [[motivation]] for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld, sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on the student's [[confidence]] of potential for learning.<ref name=":1" /> These feelings of competence and belief in potential to solve new [[Problem solving|problems]], are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more important than any external acknowledgment and motivation.<ref name=prawat1994>((cite journal|last1=Prawat|first1=Richard S.|last2=Floden|first2=Robert E.|date=1 January 1994|title=Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777968|journal=Educational Psychologist|volume=29|issue=1|pages=37–48|doi=10.1207/s15326985ep2901_4|issn=0046-1520|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082711/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243777968_Philosophical_perspectives_on_constructivist_views_of_learning|url-status=live))</ref> This links up with [[Vygotsky]]'s "[[zone of proximal development]]" where students are challenged in close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, students gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges.<ref name=vygotsky1978>((cite book|title=Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes|last1=Vygotsky|first1=L. S.|last2=Cole|first2=Michael|date=1978|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-57629-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mindinsocietydev00vygo))</ref>

===The role of the instructor===
==== Instructors as facilitators ====
According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of [[facilitator]]s and not teachers.<ref>((cite book | last=Bauersfeld | first=H. | chapter='Language games' in the mathematics classroom: Their function and their effects | editor-last=Cobb | editor-first=Paul | editor-last2=Bauersfeld | editor-first2=H. | title=The emergence of mathematical meaning: interaction in classroom cultures | publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates | publication-place=Hillsdale, N.J. | date=1995 | isbn=0-8058-1728-X | oclc=31436489 | page=))</ref> Whereas a teacher gives a [[Didacticism|didactic]] lecture that covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the student to get to their own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the student plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the student.<ref>((cite book|title=Handbook of the Sociology of Education|last1=Gamoran|first1=Adam|last2=Secada|first2=Walter G.|last3=Marrett|first3=Cora B.|date=2000|publisher=Springer, Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-387-32517-0|editor-last=Hallinan|editor-first=M.T.|series=Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research|pages=37–63|chapter=The Organizational Context of Teaching and Learning|chapter-url=http://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/001/428/476/9780387325170_content_pdf_2.pdf|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=31 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081103/http://content.schweitzer-online.de/static/catalog_manager/live/media_files/representation/zd_std_orig__zd_schw_orig/001/428/476/9780387325170_content_pdf_2.pdf|url-status=live))</ref> This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than that of a teacher.<ref name=browstein2001>((cite journal|last=Brownstein|first=Bonnie|date=22 December 2001|title=Collaboration: the foundation of learning in the future|journal=Education|volume=122|issue=2))</ref> A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at their own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a [[monologue]], a facilitator is in continuous [[dialogue]] with the learners.<ref name=rhodes1999>((cite journal|last1=Rhodes|first1=Lynn K.|last2=Bellamy|first2=G. Thomas|date=1 January 1999|title=Choices and Consequences in the Renewal of Teacher Education|journal=Journal of Teacher Education|volume=50|issue=1|pages=17–26|doi=10.1177/002248719905000103|s2cid=143182193|issn=0022-4871))</ref> A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience 'in mid-air' by taking the initiative to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.

The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the student's thinking.<ref name=divesta1987>((cite book|title=Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology|last=Di Vesta|first=Francis J.|date=1987|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4899-3622-6|series=Perspectives on Individual Differences|location=Boston|pages=203–233|chapter=The Cognitive Movement and Education|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-3620-2_11))</ref> While it is advocated to give the student ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the student in becoming an effective [[Thought|thinker]]. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as [[consultant]] and [[Coaching|coach]].

==== Relationship between instructor and students ====
A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the instructor and the students are equally involved in learning from each other as well.<ref name=":5">((cite journal|last1=Holt|first1=Dan G.|last2=Willard-Holt|first2=Colleen|date=1 November 2000|title=Let's Get Real™: Students Solving Authentic Corporate Problems|journal=Phi Delta Kappan|volume=82|issue=3|pages=243–246|doi=10.1177/003172170008200315|s2cid=143466659|issn=0031-7217))</ref> This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and requires that the instructor's culture, values and background become an essential part of the interplay between students and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Students compare their version of thought with that of the instructor and fellow students to get to a new, [[Social proof|socially tested]] version of context. The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the student.<ref name=":4" /> This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and student. This entails that students and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time.<ref name=":6">((cite journal|last=Savery|first=Lawson K.|date=1 June 1994|title=The Influence of the Perceived Styles of Leadership on a Group of Workers on their Attitudes to Work|journal=Leadership & Organization Development Journal|volume=15|issue=4|pages=12–18|doi=10.1108/01437739410059863|issn=0143-7739))</ref>

Some studies argue for the importance of [[Mentorship|mentoring]] in the process of learning.<ref name=":2" /><ref>((cite conference|last1=Archee|first1=Ray|last2=Hill Duin|first2=DA|date=1995|title=The World Wide Web and Distance Education: Congergenece or Cacophony?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZiM77RkNBMC&pg=PA348|conference=AUUG Conference Proceedings|publisher=AUUG, Inc.|pages=348–356|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082711/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZiM77RkNBMC&pg=PA348|url-status=live))</ref> The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.

Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include [[reciprocal teaching]], peer collaboration, [[cognitive apprenticeship]], problem-based instruction, web quests, [[Anchored Instruction]] and other approaches that involve learning with others.

=== Learning is an active process ===
Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge is first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals.<ref>((cite book|title=Cognitive Psychology and Instruction|last1=Bruning|first1=Roger H.|last2=Schraw|first2=Gregory J.|last3=Ronning|first3=Royce R.|date=1999|publisher=Prentice-Hall, Inc|isbn=978-0-13-716606-0|edition=3rd))</ref> According to social constructivists, the process of sharing individual perspectives — called ''collaborative elaboration'' — results in learners constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone.<ref>((cite journal|last1=Meter|first1=Peggy Van|last2=Stevens|first2=Robert J.|date=1 January 2000|title=The Role of Theory in the Study of Peer Collaboration|journal=The Journal of Experimental Education|volume=69|issue=1|pages=113–127|doi=10.1080/00220970009600652|s2cid=143292199|issn=0022-0973))</ref><ref>((cite journal|last1=Greeno|first1=James G|last2=Collins|first2=Allan M|last3=Resnick|first3=Lauren B|date=1996|title=Cognition and learning|journal=Handbook of Educational Psychology|volume=77|pages=15–46))</ref>

Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where students should learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging guesswork and [[intuitive thinking]] in students.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">((cite journal|last=Ackerman|first=Phillip L.|date=1 March 1996|title=A theory of adult intellectual development: Process, personality, interests, and knowledge|journal=Intelligence|volume=22|issue=2|pages=227–257|doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(96)90016-1|issn=0160-2896))</ref>

Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Hsu|first=Liwei|date=2013|title=English as a foreign language learners' perception of mobile assisted language learning: a cross-national study|journal=Computer Assisted Language Learning|publisher=Taylor & Francis online |volume=26 |issue=3|pages=197–213|doi=10.1080/09588221.2011.649485|s2cid=62711257))</ref> Knowledge is thus a product of [[human]]s and is socially and culturally constructed.<ref name=prawat1994 /><ref>((cite book | last=Ernest | first=Paul | title=The philosophy of mathematics education | publisher=Falmer Press | publication-place=London | date=1991 | isbn=0-203-22423-X | oclc=52100009 | page=))</ref> McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further stated that learning is not a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviors that is shaped by external forces. Rather, meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.<ref name=":4">((cite conference |last=McMahon |first=M. |date= December 1997 |title=Social Constructivism and the World Wide Web – A Paradigm for Learning |conference=Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education 1997 conference |volume=327 |place=Perth))</ref>

Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an [[Intrapersonal communication|intra-personal]] level, while speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture.<ref name=vygotsky1978 />

====Collaboration among learners====
((main|Learning by teaching))
Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field.<ref name=":7">((cite book|title=Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation|date=1992|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|isbn=978-0-8058-1272-5|editor-last=Duffy|editor-first=Thomas|location=Hillsdale, New Jersey|editor-last2=Jonassen))((Page needed|date=February 2018))</ref>

Some social constructivist models also stress the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive approaches.<ref name=":7" /> One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual [[Child development stages|developmental level]] as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of [[Theory of cognitive development|Piaget's stages of development]]. Through a process of '[[Instructional scaffolding|scaffolding]]' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process.<ref name="vygotsky1978" />

If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a [[Nonlinear system|non-linear]] process of collective knowledge-construction will be set up.

====The importance of context====
The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself.<ref name=":4" />

Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains".<ref name=divesta1987 />((rp|208)) [[Contextualism|Decontextualised]] knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because we are not working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used.<ref name=":7" /> One social constructivist notion is that of authentic or [[situated learning]], where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting.<ref name=":2" /> [[Cognitive apprenticeship]] has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship".<ref name=":3" />((Rp|25))

Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of [[dynamic assessment]], which is a way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here, the essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes.<ref name=":5" />

According to this viewpoint, instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and [[Educational software|courseware]]. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development.

===The selection, scope, and sequencing of the subject matter===
==== Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole ====
Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be discovered as an integrated whole.<ref name=divesta1987 /><ref name=":4" />

This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented.<ref name=":2" /> The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions.<ref name=":3" />

==== Engaging and challenging the student ====
Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to enhance student confidence.<ref name=browstein2001 /> This is in line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers).<ref name=vygotsky1978 />

Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role in development.<ref name=vygotsky1978 />

To fully engage and challenge the student, the task and learning environment should reflect the complexity of the environment that the student should be able to function in at the end of learning. Students must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem itself.<ref>((cite book | last=Derry | first=Sharon J. | chapter=A Fish Called Peer Learning: Searching for Common Themes | editor-last=O'Donnell | editor-first=Angela M. | editor-last2=King | editor-first2=Alison | title=Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning | publisher=Taylor and Francis | publication-place=Hoboken | date=2014 | isbn=978-1-4106-0371-5 | oclc=881162577 | page=))</ref>

Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form.<ref name=":7" /> This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that form topics or subject areas, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been extensively used in curricula.

It is important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their students.<ref name=rhodes1999 /> Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The [[emotion]]s and [[life]] contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered as an integral part of learning. The goal of the student is central in considering why to learn.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

==== The structuredness of the learning process ====
It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.<ref name=":6" />

=== Teaching Techniques ===
((Main article|Constructivist teaching methods))
A few strategies for cooperative learning include: 
* Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions
*[[Jigsaw (teaching technique)|Jigsaw Classroom]]: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and teach it to the others in their group
* Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular controversy<ref>((cite book | last=Woolfolk | first=Anita | title=Educational psychology | edition=11th | publication-place=Upper Saddle River, N.J. | publisher=Merrill | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-13-714454-9 | oclc=268547518 | page=))</ref>

====The Harkness discussion method====
It is called the "Harkness" discussion method because it was developed at [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] with funds donated in the 1930s by [[Edward Harkness]]. This is also named after the Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle, motivating and controlling their own discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible. Perhaps the teacher's only function is to observe, although they might begin or shift or even direct a discussion. The students get it rolling, direct it, and focus it. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work. They all participate, but not in a competitive way. Rather, they all share in the responsibility and the goals, much as any members share in any team sport. Although the goals of any discussion will change depending upon what's under discussion, some goals will always be the same: to illuminate the subject, to unravel its mysteries, to interpret and share and learn from other points of view, to piece together the puzzle using everyone's contribution. Discussion skills are important. Everyone must be aware of how to get this discussion rolling and keep it rolling and interesting. Just as in any [[sport]], a number of skills are necessary to work on and use at appropriate times. Everyone is expected to contribute by using these skills.((Citation needed|date=December 2023|reason=I will delete this section unless someone can provide a source. If a source is provided I will move it to the [[Constructivist teaching methods]] article))

==Pedagogies based on constructivism==
((main|Constructivist teaching methods))

Various approaches in pedagogy derive from constructivist theory. They usually suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach. Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen, and are left to make their own [[inference]]s, discoveries and conclusions.

===In adult learning===
Constructivist ideas have been used to inform [[adult education]]. Current trends in higher education push for more "active learning" teaching approaches which are often based on constructivist views.((citation needed|date=December 2023))

Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning, diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for achieving the objectives, formulation of [[Educational aims and objectives|learning objectives]] based on the diagnosed needs and interests. While adult learning often stresses the importance of personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper understanding of underlying concepts, all of these are principles that may benefit learners of all ages as even children connect their every day experiences to what they learn.((citation needed|date=December 2023))

=== Supporting research and evidence===
Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist [[Problem-based learning|problem-based]] and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an [[Inquiry-based learning|inquiry-based]] science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.<ref name="hmelo">((cite journal |url=http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/hmelo_ep07.pdf |title=Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) |last1=Hmelo-Silver |last2=Duncan |last3=Chinn |year=2007 |journal=Educational Psychologist |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=99–107 |doi=10.1080/00461520701263368 |s2cid=1360735 |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223152831/http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/hmelo_ep07.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2010 |url-status=dead ))</ref>

Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of [[Inquiry-based learning|inquiry-based science]] for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes [[standardized test]]s. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the [[Achievement gap in the United States|achievement gap]] for [[African Americans|African-American]] students.<ref name="hmelo" />

Guthrie et al. (2004) compared three instructional methods for [[Third grade|third-grade]] reading: a traditional approach, a strategies instruction only approach, and an approach with strategies instruction and constructivist motivation techniques including student choices, collaboration, and hands-on activities. The constructivist approach, called CORI ([[Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction]]), resulted in better student reading comprehension, cognitive strategies, and motivation.<ref name="Guthrie">((cite journal |url=http://www.cori.umd.edu/research/publications/2004-guthrie-wigfield-etal.pdf |title=Increasing Reading Comprehension and Engagement Through Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction |last=Guthrie |year=2004 |journal=[[Journal of Educational Psychology]] |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=403–423 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.403 |display-authors=etal |access-date=29 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525225834/http://www.cori.umd.edu/research/publications/2004-guthrie-wigfield-etal.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2006 |url-status=dead ))</ref>

Jong Suk Kim found that using constructivist teaching methods for [[Sixth grade|6th graders]] resulted in better student achievement than traditional teaching methods. This study also found that students preferred constructivist methods over traditional ones. However, Kim did not find any difference in student self-concept or learning strategies between those taught by constructivist or traditional methods.<ref name="kim">((cite journal |url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2a/5a/af.pdf |last=Kim |year=2005 |title=The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on Student Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, and Learning Strategies |journal=Asia Pacific Education Review |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–19 |doi=10.1007/bf03024963 |s2cid=13864166 |access-date=16 December 2007 |archive-date=6 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306105314/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2a/5a/af.pdf |url-status=live ))</ref>

Doğru and Kalender compared science classrooms using traditional teacher-centered approaches to those using student-centered, constructivist methods. In their initial test of student performance immediately following the lessons, they found no significant difference between traditional and constructivist methods. However, in the follow-up assessment 15 days later, students who learned through constructivist methods showed better retention of knowledge than those who learned through traditional methods.<ref name="Doğru">((cite journal |url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2d/77/67.pdf |last1=Doğru |last2=Kalender |year=2007 |title=Applying the Subject 'Cell' Through Constructivist Approach during Science Lessons and the Teacher's View |journal=Journal of Environmental & Science Education |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |access-date=16 December 2007 |archive-date=6 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306105335/http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2d/77/67.pdf |url-status=live ))</ref>

== Criticism ==
Several [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologists]] and educators have questioned the central claims of constructivism.  It is argued that constructivist theories are misleading or contradict known findings.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /><ref>((cite book | last1=Anderson | first1=John R. | last2=Reder | first2=Lynne M. | last3=Simon | first3=Herbert A. | title=Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology in mathematics education | date=1998 | url=http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/misapplied.html | access-date=4 February 2007 | archive-date=8 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908220818/http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/papers/misapplied.html | url-status=live ))</ref><ref>[http://wwwcsi.unian.it/educa/inglese/matthews.html Constructivism in Science and Mathematics Education] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091118172926/http://wwwcsi.unian.it/educa/inglese/matthews.html |date=18 November 2009 )), Michael R. Matthews</ref><ref>[http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/el199911_holloway.html Research Link / Caution: Constructivism Ahead] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427051821/http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/el199911_holloway.html |date=27 April 2006 )) Holloway, ''Educational Leadership, 57'' (3). November 1999.</ref><ref>((cite journal | last1=Liu | first1=Charlotte Hua | last2=Matthews | first2=Robert | title=Vygotsky's Philosophy: Constructivism and Its Criticisms Examined | journal=International Education Journal | volume=6 | issue=3 | date=9 July 2005 | issn=1443-1475 | pages=386–99 | url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf |id=((ERIC|EJ854992)) | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809085130/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854992.pdf | archive-date=9 August 2021 | url-status=live ))</ref> Matthews (1993) attempts to sketch the influence of constructivism in current mathematics and science education, aiming to indicate how pervasive Aristotle's empiricist [[epistemology]] is within it and what problems constructivism faces on that account.<ref>((cite journal | last=Matthews | first=Michael R. | title=Constructivism and science education: Some epistemological problems |url=https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00694598 | journal=Journal of Science Education and Technology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=2 | issue=1 | year=1993 | issn=1059-0145 | doi=10.1007/bf00694598 | s2cid=144764423 | pages=359–370 | bibcode=1993JSEdT...2..359M |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814082724/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00694598 |url-status=live))</ref>

In the [[neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]] it is maintained that learning at any age depends upon the processing and representational resources available at this particular age.  That is, it is maintained that if the requirements of the concept to be understood exceeds the available processing efficiency and [[working memory]] resources then the concept is by definition not learnable. This attitude toward learning impedes the learning from understanding essential theoretical concepts or, in other words, reasoning.<ref>((cite web |url=http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/Warmaudit31%205.pdf |title=Why We Don't Really Know What "Statistical Significance" Means: A Major Educational Failure* |author1=Raymond Hubbard |author2=J. Scott Armstrong |year=2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620221122/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/Warmaudit31%205.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2010 ))</ref> Therefore, no matter how active a child is during learning, to learn the child must operate in a learning environment that meets the developmental and individual learning constraints that are characteristic for the child's age and this child's possible deviations from her age's norm. If this condition is not met, construction goes astray.<ref>Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), ''Life-span developmental psychology'' (pp. 179–269). London: Wiley.</ref><ref>Demetriou, A., Shayer, M., & Efklides, A. (1992). ''Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development'': ''Implications and applications to education''. London: Routledge</ref>

Several educators have also questioned the effectiveness of this approach toward instructional design, especially as it applies to the development of instruction for novices.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /><ref name="Mayer" /> While some constructivists argue that "learning by doing" enhances learning, critics of this instructional strategy argue that little [[empirical evidence]] exists to support this statement given novice learners.<ref name= "Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /><ref name="Mayer" /> Sweller and his colleagues argue that novices do not possess the underlying mental models, or "schemas" necessary for "learning by doing".<ref name=":8">((cite journal|last=Sweller|first=J|date=June 1988|title=Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning|journal=Cognitive Science|volume=12|issue=2|pages=257–285|doi=10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7|issn=0364-0213|doi-access=free))</ref> Indeed, Mayer (2004) reviewed the literature and found that fifty years of empirical data do not support using the constructivist teaching technique of pure discovery; in those situations requiring discovery, he argues for the use of guided discovery instead.<ref name="Mayer" />

Mayer (2004) argues that not all teaching techniques based on constructivism are efficient or effective for all learners, suggesting many educators misapply constructivism to use teaching techniques that require learners to be behaviorally active. He describes this inappropriate use of constructivism as the "constructivist teaching fallacy". "I refer to this interpretation as the constructivist teaching fallacy because it equates active learning with active teaching."<ref name="Mayer" />((Rp|15)) Instead Mayer proposes learners should be "cognitively active" during learning and that instructors use "guided practice."

In contrast, Kirschner ''et al.'' (2006)<ref name= "Kirschner, P.A. 2006"/> describe constructivist teaching methods as "unguided methods of instruction." They suggest more structured learning activities for learners with little to no prior knowledge. Slezak states that constructivism "is an example of fashionable but thoroughly problematic doctrines that can have little benefit for practical pedagogy or teacher education."<ref>((cite journal|last=Slezak|first=Peter|date=2010|title=Radical Constructivism: Epistemology, Education and Dynamite.|journal=Constructivist Foundations|volume=6|issue=1|issn=1782-348X))</ref> Similar views have been stated by Meyer,<ref>((cite journal |last=Meyer |first=D. L. |year=2009 |title=The Poverty of Constructivism |journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=332–341 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-5812.2008.00457.x |s2cid=144604333 ))</ref> Boden, Quale and others.

Kirschner ''et al.'' group a number of learning theories together (Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based learning) and stated that highly scaffolded constructivist methods like problem-based learning and inquiry learning are ineffective.<ref name= "Kirschner, P.A. 2006"/> Kirschner ''et al.'' described several [[Observational study|research studies]] that were favorable to problem-based learning given learners were provided some level of guidance and support.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" />

===A rebuttal to the criticisms of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark===
While there are critics of the Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark<ref name= "Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /> article, Sweller and his associates have written in their articles about:
#instructional designs for producing procedural learning (learning as behavior change);<ref name=":8" />
#their grouping of seemingly disparate learning theories<ref name= "Kirschner, P.A. 2006"/> and;
#a continuum of guidance beginning with worked examples that may be followed by practice, or transitioned to practice<ref name=":9" /> (Renkl, Atkinson, Maier, and Staley, 2002)

Kirschner ''et al.'' (2006) describe worked examples as an instructional design solution for procedural learning.<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" /> Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller (2006) describe this as a very effective, empirically validated method of teaching learners procedural skill acquisition. Evidence for learning by studying worked-examples, is known as the [[worked-example effect]] and has been found to be useful in many domains (e.g. music, chess, athletics)<ref>((cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=R. K. |last2=Derry |first2=S. J. |last3=Renkl |first3=A. |last4=Wortham |first4=D. W. |year=2000 |title=Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research |journal=Review of Educational Research |volume=70 |issue= 2|pages=181–214 |doi=10.3102/00346543070002181 |citeseerx=10.1.1.115.1348 |s2cid=2956761 ))</ref> concept mapping,<ref>((cite journal |last1=Hilbert |first1=T. S. |last2=Renkl |first2=A. |year=2007 |title=Learning how to Learn by Concept Mapping: A Worked-Example Effect |journal=Paper Presentation at the 12th Biennial Conference EARLI 2007 in Budapest, Hungary ))</ref> geometry,<ref>((cite journal |last1=Tarmizi |first1=R. A. |last2=Sweller |first2=J. |year=1988 |title=Guidance during mathematical problem solving |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=424–436 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.424 |hdl=1959.4/69310 |url=https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:70660/SOURCE01?view=true |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=4 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104210709/https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:70660/SOURCE01?view=true |url-status=live |hdl-access=free ))</ref> physics, mathematics, or programming.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Gerjets |first1=P. |last2=Scheiter |first2=K. |last3=Catrambone |first3=R. |year=2004 |title=Designing instructional examples to reduce intrinsic cognitive load: molar versus modular presentation of solution procedures |journal=Instructional Science |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=33–58 |doi=10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021809.10236.71 |s2cid=16755228 |url=https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00197417/file/Gerjets-Peter-2004b.pdf |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227232936/https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00197417/file/Gerjets-Peter-2004b.pdf |url-status=live ))</ref>

Kirschner ''et al.'' (2006)<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006"/> describe why they group a series of seemingly disparate learning theories (Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based learning). The reasoning for this grouping is because each learning theory promotes the same constructivist teaching technique—"learning by doing." While they argue "learning by doing" is useful for more knowledgeable learners, they argue this teaching technique is not useful for novices. Mayer states that it promotes behavioral activity too early in the learning process, when learners should be cognitively active.<ref name="Mayer">((cite journal |url=http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf |last=Mayer |year=2004 |title=Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning? |journal=American Psychologist |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=14–19 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14 |pmid=14736316 |citeseerx=10.1.1.372.2476 |s2cid=1129364 |access-date=29 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215142158/http://projects.ict.usc.edu/itw/vtt/MayerThreeStrikesAP04.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=dead ))</ref>

In addition, Sweller and his associates describe a continuum of guidance, starting with worked examples to slowly fade guidance. This continuum of faded guidance has been tested empirically to produce a series of learning effects: the worked-example effect,<ref name=sweller1985>((cite journal |last1=Sweller |first1=J. |last2=Cooper |first2=G. A. |year=1985 |title=The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra |journal=Cognition and Instruction |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=59–89 |doi=10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3 ))</ref> the guidance fading effect,<ref name=":10">((cite journal |last1=Renkl |first1=A. |last2=Atkinson |first2=R. K. |last3=Maier |first3=U. H. |last4=Staley |first4=R. |year=2002 |title=From example study to problem solving: Smooth transitions help learning |journal=Journal of Experimental Education |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=293–315 |doi=10.1080/00220970209599510 |citeseerx=10.1.1.464.2351 |s2cid=21032460 ))</ref> and the expertise-reversal effect.<ref name=":9">((cite journal |last1=Kalyuga |first1=S. |last2=Ayres |first2=P. |last3=Chandler |first3=P. |last4=Sweller |first4=J. |year=2003 |title=The expertise reversal effect |journal=Educational Psychologist |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1207/S15326985EP3801_4 |s2cid=10519654 |url=http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/136 |access-date=14 August 2021 |archive-date=10 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110051829/http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/136/ |url-status=live ))</ref>

===Criticism of discovery-based teaching techniques===
((Blockquote|After a half century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, there appears no body of research supporting the technique. In so far as there is any evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather constructivist-based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners. Even for students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches. Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge|Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching by Kirschner, Sweller, Clark<ref name="Kirschner, P.A. 2006" />))

Mayer (2004) argues against discovery-based teaching techniques and provides an extensive review to support this argument. Mayer's arguments are against pure discovery, and are not specifically aimed at constructivism: "Nothing in this article should be construed as arguing against the view of learning as knowledge construction or against using hands-on inquiry or group discussion that promotes the process of knowledge construction in learners. The main conclusion I draw from the three research literatures I have reviewed is that it would be a mistake to interpret the current constructivist view of learning as a rationale for reviving pure discovery as a method of instruction."<ref name="Mayer" />

Mayer's concern is how one applies discovery-based teaching techniques. He provides empirical research as evidence that discovery-based teaching techniques are inadequate. Here he cites this literature and makes his point "For example, a recent replication is research showing that students learn to become better at solving [[mathematics]] problems when they study worked-out examples rather than when they solely engage in hands-on problem solving.<ref>((cite book|title=Instructional Design in Technical Areas|last=Sweller|first=John|date=1999|publisher=ACER Press|isbn=978-0-86431-312-6|series=Australian education review|location=Camberwell))</ref> Today's proponents of discovery methods, who claim to draw their support from constructivist philosophy, are making inroads into educational practice. Yet a dispassionate review of the relevant research literature shows that discovery-based practice is not as effective as guided discovery."<ref name="Mayer" />((Rp|18))

Mayer's point is that people often misuse constructivism to promote pure discovery-based teaching techniques. He proposes that the instructional design recommendations of constructivism are too often aimed at discovery-based practice.<ref name="Mayer" /> Sweller (1988) found evidence that practice by novices during early schema acquisition, distracts these learners with unnecessary search-based activity, when the learner's attention should be focused on understanding (acquiring schemas).<ref name=":8" />

The study by Kirschner et al. from which the quote at the beginning of this section was taken has been widely cited and is important for showing the limits of minimally-guided instruction.<ref>((Cite book | last = Nilson | first = Linda Burzotta | title = Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | year = 2010 | location = San Francisco | pages = 176 | isbn = 9780470401040))</ref> Hmelo-Silver et al. responded,<ref>((Cite journal | last = Hmelo-Silver | first = Cindy E. |author2=Ravit Golan Duncan |author3=Clark A. Chinn  | s2cid = 1360735 | title = Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) | journal = Educational Psychologist | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–107 | year = 2007 | doi=10.1080/00461520701263368))</ref> pointing out that Kirschner et al. conflated constructivist teaching techniques such as inquiry learning with "[[discovery learning]]". (See the preceding two [[Constructivism (learning theory)#Criticism|sections]] of this article.) This would agree with Mayer's viewpoint that even though constructivism as a theory and teaching techniques incorporating guidance are likely valid applications of this theory, nevertheless a tradition of misunderstanding  has led to some question "pure discovery" techniques.

===The math wars and discovery-based teaching techniques===
((main|Math Wars))
The [[math wars]] controversy in the United States is an example of the type of heated [[debate]] that sometimes follows the implementation of constructivist-inspired curricula in schools. In the 1990s, mathematics textbooks based on new [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics#1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics|standards]] largely informed by constructivism were developed and promoted with government support. Although constructivist theory does not require eliminating instruction entirely, some textbooks seemed to recommend this extreme. Some parents and mathematicians protested the design of textbooks that omitted or de-emphasized instruction of standard mathematical methods. Supporters responded that the methods were to be eventually discovered under direction by the teacher, but since this was missing or unclear, many insisted the textbooks were designed to deliberately eliminate instruction of standard methods. In one commonly adopted text, the standard formula for the area of a circle is to be derived in the classroom, but not actually printed in the student textbook as is explained by the developers of [[Connected Mathematics|CMP]]: "The student role of formulating, representing, clarifying, communicating, and reflecting on ideas leads to an increase in learning. If the format of the texts included many worked examples, the student role would then become merely reproducing these examples with small modifications."<ref>((Cite web |url=http://connectedmath.msu.edu/parents/faq.html#q15 |title=CMP2 Parent Website FAQ |access-date=8 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622080110/http://connectedmath.msu.edu/parents/faq.html#q15 |archive-date=22 June 2009 |url-status=dead ))</ref>

Similarly, this approach has been applied to reading with [[whole language]] and inquiry-based science that emphasizes the importance of ''devising'' rather than just performing hands-on experiments as early as the [[Primary education|elementary grades]] (traditionally done by research scientists), rather than studying facts. In other areas of curriculum such as [[social studies]] and [[writing]] are relying more on "higher order thinking skills" rather than memorization of dates, [[grammar]] or [[spelling]] rules or reciting correct answers. Advocates of this approach counter that the constructivism does not require going to extremes, that in fact teachable moments should regularly infuse the experience with the more traditional teaching. The primary differentiation from the traditional approach being that the engagement of the students in their learning makes them more receptive to learning things at an appropriate time, rather than on a preset schedule.

===Importance of structure in constructivist learning environments===

During the 1990s, several theorists began to study the [[cognitive load]] of novices (those with little or no prior knowledge of the subject matter) during problem solving. Cognitive load theory was applied in several contexts.<ref>((cite journal|last=Paas|first=Fred G.|date=1992|title=Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach.|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=84|issue=4|pages=429–434|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429|issn=1939-2176))</ref><ref>((cite journal|last1=Moreno|first1=Roxana|last2=Mayer|first2=Richard E.|date=1999|title=Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity.|url=http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/file/view/Moreno%20%26%20Mayer%201999.pdf|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=358–368|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.358|issn=0022-0663|citeseerx=10.1.1.458.4719|access-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809223719/http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/file/view/Moreno%20%26%20Mayer%201999.pdf|archive-date=9 August 2017|url-status=dead))</ref><ref>((cite journal|last1=Mousavi|first1=Seyed Yaghoub|last2=Low|first2=Renae|last3=Sweller|first3=John|date=1995|title=Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes.|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=87|issue=2|pages=319–334|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.87.2.319|issn=0022-0663|citeseerx=10.1.1.471.2089))</ref><ref>((cite journal|last1=Chandler|first1=Paul|last2=Sweller|first2=John|s2cid=40723362|date=June 1992|title=The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction|journal=British Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=62|issue=2|pages=233–246|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8279.1992.tb01017.x|issn=0007-0998))</ref><ref name=sweller1985 /><ref>((cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Graham|last2=Sweller|first2=John|date=1987|title=Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=79|issue=4|pages=347–362|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347|issn=0022-0663))</ref> Based on the results of their research, these authors do not support the idea of allowing novices to interact with ill-structured learning environments. Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner to discover problem solutions. Jonassen (1997) also suggested that novices be taught with "well-structured" learning environments.<ref name=":11">((cite journal|last=Jonassen|first=David H.|date=March 1997|title=Instructional design models for well-structured and III-structured problem-solving learning outcomes|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|volume=45|issue=1|pages=65–94|doi=10.1007/BF02299613|s2cid=18701133|issn=1042-1629))</ref>

Jonassen (1997) also proposed well-designed, well-structured learning environments provide scaffolding for problem-solving. Finally, both Sweller and Jonassen support problem-solving scenarios for more advanced learners.<ref name=":11" /><ref>((cite journal | last1=Kalyuga | first1=Slava | last2=Ayres | first2=Paul | last3=Chandler | first3=Paul | last4=Sweller | first4=John | title=The Expertise Reversal Effect | journal=Educational Psychologist | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=38 | issue=1 | date=1 January 2003 | issn=0046-1520 | doi=10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 | pages=23–31| s2cid=10519654 | url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/136 ))</ref>

Sweller and his associates even suggest well-structured learning environments, like those provided by worked examples, are not effective for those with more experience—this was later described as the "[[expertise reversal effect]]".<ref name=":9" /> Cognitive load theorists suggest worked examples initially, with a gradual introduction of problem solving scenarios; this is described as the "guidance fading effect"<ref name=":10" /><ref>((cite book|title=Psychology of Learning and Motivation|last=Sweller|first=J|date=2003|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-543343-3|editor-last=Ross|editor-first=Brian|location=San Diego|chapter=Evolution of human cognitive architecture|chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/bookseries/00797421/43|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814124222/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/bookseries/00797421/43|url-status=live))</ref> Each of these ideas provides more evidence for Anderson's ACT-R framework.<ref>Clark, R. E. & Elen, J., (2006). When less is more: Research and theory insights about instruction for complex learning. In R. E. Clark & J. Elen (Eds.) Handling Complexity in Learning Environments: Research and Theory. London: Elsevier. 283–295.</ref> This [[ACT-R]] framework suggests learning can begin with studying examples.

Finally Mayer states: "Thus, the contribution of psychology is to help move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and unproductive world of educational ideology—which sometimes hides under the banner of various versions of constructivism—to the sharp and productive world of theory-based research on how people learn."<ref name="Mayer" />((Rp|18))

===Confusion between constructivist and maturationist views===
Many people confuse constructivist with [[maturationist]] views. The constructivist (or cognitive-developmental) stream "is based on the idea that the [[dialectic]] or [[interactionist]] process of development and learning through the student's active construction should be facilitated and promoted by adults".<ref name=":12">((cite book|title=Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: practical principles and activities|date=2002|publisher=Teachers College Press|isbn=978-0-8077-4121-4|editor-last=DeVries|editor-first=Rheta|series=Early childhood education series|location=New York))</ref> Whereas, "The romantic maturationist stream is based on the idea that the student's naturally occurring development should be allowed to flower without adult interventions in a permissive environment."<ref name=":12" /> In other words, adults play an active role in guiding learning in constructivism, while they are expected to allow children to guide themselves in maturationism.

==Subtypes==
=== Contextual constructivism ===

According to William Cobern (1991) Contextual constructivism is "about understanding the fundamental, culturally based beliefs that both students and teachers bring to class, and how these beliefs are supported by culture. Contextual constructivists not only raise new research questions, they also call for a new research paradigm. The focus on contextualization means that qualitative, especially ethnographic, techniques are to be preferred" (p.&nbsp;3).<ref name=Cobern1991>((cite journal|last=Cobern|first=William|date=April 1991|title=Contextual Constructivism: The Impact of Culture on the Learning and Teaching of Science|journal=Theoretical Bases for Science Education Research|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED338488))</ref>

=== Radical constructivism ===
((Main|Radical constructivism))
[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]] developed [[radical constructivism]] by coupling Piaget's theory of learning and philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge with [[Kantian ethics|Kant's]] rejection of an objective reality independent of human perception or [[reason]].&nbsp;Radical constructivism does not view knowledge as an attempt to generate ideas that match an independent, objective reality.<ref>((cite book | last=von Glasersfeld | first=Ernst | title=Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning |series=Studies in Mathematics Education Series, no. 6 | id=((ERIC|ED381352)) | year=1995 | isbn=0-7507-0387-3 | oclc=52130078 | publisher=Falmer Press | place=London))</ref> Instead, theories and knowledge about the world, as generated by our [[sense]]s and reason, either fit within the constraints of whatever reality may exist and, thus, are viable or do not and are not viable.<ref>((cite journal | last=von Glasersfeld | first=Ernst | title=Chapter 2: An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like It Radical | journal=Journal for Research in Mathematics Education: Monograph | publisher=National Council of Teachers of Mathematics | volume=4 | year=1990 | issn=0883-9530 | doi=10.2307/749910 | pages=19–29, 195–210 | jstor=749910 ))</ref>  As a theory of education, radical constructivism emphasizes the experiences of the learner, differences between learners and the importance of [[uncertainty]].<ref>((cite journal | last=Gash | first=H. | title=Constructing Constructivism | journal=Constructivist Foundations | volume=9 | issue=3 | date=15 July 2014 | url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GASCC | pages=302–310))</ref>

=== Relational constructivism ===
[[Björn Kraus]]' [[relational constructivism]] can be perceived as a relational consequence of radical constructivism. In contrast to social constructivism, it picks up the epistemological threads and maintains the radical constructivist idea that humans cannot overcome their limited conditions of reception. Despite the subjectivity of human constructions of reality, relational constructivism focuses on the relational conditions that apply to human [[Perceptual learning|perceptional]] processes.<ref>See Björn Kraus: ''The Life We Live and the Life We Experience: Introducing the Epistemological Difference between "Lifeworld" (Lebenswelt) and "Life Conditions" (Lebenslage)'' Social Work and Society. International Online Journal. Vol. 13, No. 2 2015, http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438 ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413211413/http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438 |date=13 April 2019 )); Björn Kraus: Plädoyer für den Relationalen Konstruktivismus und eine Relationale Soziale Arbeit. in Forum Sozial (2017) 1 pp. 29–35, http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948 ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801010411/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948 |date=1 August 2020 ))</ref>

=== Social constructivism ===
In recent decades, constructivist theorists have extended the traditional focus on individual learning to address collaborative and social dimensions of learning. It is possible to see [[social constructivism]] as a bringing together of aspects of the work of Piaget with that of Bruner and Vygotsky.<ref>((cite book|title=How Children Think and Learn|last=Wood|first=David|date=1998|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-20007-9|edition=2nd|series=Understanding children's worlds|location=Oxford, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howchildrenthink0000wood/page/39 39]|url=https://archive.org/details/howchildrenthink0000wood/page/39))</ref>

=== Communal constructivism ===
The concept ''Communal constructivism'' was developed by Leask and Younie<ref name="Leask and Younie">Leask, M., and Younie, S. (2001a) 'Communal Constructivist Theory: pedagogy of information and communications technology & internationalisation of the curriculum', Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, Vol. 10, Nos 1 & 2, pp117 –134</ref> in 1995 through their research on the European [[Global SchoolNet|SchoolNet]]<ref name="Younie and Leask">((cite journal | last1 = Younie | first1 = S. | last2 = Leask | first2 = M. | year = 2001b | title = The European SchoolNet: An online community for European teachers? A valuable professional resource? | url = http://www.editlib.org/p/94352/ | journal = Teacher Development | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–172 | doi = 10.1080/13664530100200140 | s2cid = 145109452 | access-date = 14 August 2021 | archive-date = 15 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160815122924/http://www.editlib.org/p/94352/ | url-status = live | doi-access = free ))</ref> which demonstrated the value of experts collaborating to push the boundaries of knowledge i.e. communal construction of new knowledge between experts rather than social construction of knowledge as described by Vygotsky where there is a learner to teacher scaffolding relationship. "Communal constructivism" as a concept applies to those situations in which there is currently no expert knowledge or research to underpin knowledge in an area. "Communal constructivism" refers specifically to the process of experts working together to create, record and publish new knowledge in emerging areas. In the seminal European SchoolNet research where for the first time academics were testing out how the internet could support classroom practice and pedagogy, experts from a number of countries set up test situations to generate and understand new possibilities for educational practice.

Bryan Holmes in 2001 applied this to student learning as described in an early paper, "in this [[model (abstract)|model]], students will not simply pass through a course like [[water]] through a [[sieve]] but instead leave their own imprint in the learning process."<ref name="Holmes">((cite web|last1=Holmes|first1=Bryan|last2=Tangney|first2=Brendan|last3=FitzGibbon|first3=Ann|last4=Savage|first4=Tim|last5=Mehan|first5=Siobhan|title=Communal Constructivism: Students constructing learning for as well as with others|url=https://www.scss.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.01/TCD-CS-2001-04.pdf|publisher=Trinity College|journal=|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227232934/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/publications/tech-reports/reports.01/TCD-CS-2001-04.pdf|url-status=live))</ref>

== Influence on computer science and robotics ==

Constructivism has influenced the course of programming and [[computer science]]. Some famous [[programming language]]s have been created, wholly or in part, for [[education]]al use, to support the [[Constructionism (learning theory)|constructionist]] theory of Seymour Papert. These languages have been [[dynamic typing|dynamically typed]], and [[reflection (computer science)|reflective]]. [[Logo programming language|Logo]] and its successor [[Scratch programming language|Scratch]] are the best known of them. Constructivism has also informed the design of interactive [[machine learning]] systems,<ref>((Cite conference |last=Sarkar |first=Advait |date=1 January 2016 |title=Constructivist Design for Interactive Machine Learning |conference=Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems |location=New York |publisher=ACM |pages=1467–1475 |doi=10.1145/2851581.2892547 |isbn=9781450340823 |s2cid=1949678))</ref> whereas [[Constructivist epistemology|Radical Constructivism]] has been explored as a paradigm to design experiments in [[rehabilitation robotics]], more precisely in [[prosthetics]].<ref>((cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Markus |last2=Castellini |first2=Claudio |last3=Massironi |first3=Carlo |title=Applying Radical Constructivism to machine learning: a pilot study in assistive robotics |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=2018 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=250–262 |url=http://constructivist.info/13/2/250.nowak |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-date=21 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221000106/https://constructivist.info/13/2/250.nowak |url-status=live ))</ref>

==See also==
((Portal|Education|Philosophy))
* [[Autodidactism]]
* [[Connectivism]]
* [[Constructivist epistemology]]
* [[Critical pedagogy]]
* [[Cultural-historical activity theory]] (CHAT)
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Learning styles]]
* [[Philosophy of education]]
* [[Reform mathematics]]
* [[Situated cognition]]
* [[Socratic method]]
* [[Teaching for social justice]]
* [[Vocational education]]

== References ==
((Reflist))

==Further reading==
((Refbegin|))
*((cite journal | last1=Anderson | first1=John R. | last2=Reder | first2=Lynne M. | last3=Simon | first3=Herbert A. | last4=Ericsson | first4=K. Anders | last5=Glaser | first5=Robert | title=Radical Constructivism and Cognitive Psychology | journal=Brookings Papers on Education Policy | date=1998 | url=http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/archive/fulltexts/4127.html | issn=1096-2719 | issue=1 | pages=227–278 | jstor=20067198 | access-date=13 February 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130035/http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/archive/fulltexts/4127.html | archive-date=5 February 2018 | url-status=dead ))  
* ((cite journal|author=Bruner, J. S.|year=1961|title=The act of discovery|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=31|issue=1|pages=21–32))
*((cite book | author=Bransford, J. |author2= Brown, A. L.|author3= Cocking, R. R. |title=How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School | location=Washington, DC | date=2000 | publisher=The National Academies Press | doi=10.17226/6160|isbn= 978-0-309-06557-3|s2cid= 235510978))
* ((cite book|author1=Clark, R. C.|author2=Zuckerman, P.|year=1999|chapter=Multimedia Learning Systems: Design Principles | editor=Stolovitch, H. D.| editor2= Keeps, E. J. | title=Handbook of Human Performance Technology | edition=2nd | pages=564–588|location=San Francisco|publisher=Pfeiffer|isbn=978-0787911089))
* ((cite book|author1=Clark, R.C.|author2=Nguyen, F.|author3=Sweller, J.|name-list-style=amp|year=2006|title=Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load|location=San Francisco|publisher=Pfeiffer|isbn=978-0-7879-7728-3))
* ((cite book|author=de Jong, T.|year=2005|title=The guided discovery principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 215-229).|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521547512|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521547512))
* ((cite journal|author1=de Jong, T.|author2=van Joolingen, W. R.|year=1998|title=Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual Domains|url=https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190680/file/deJong-Ton-1998b.pdf|journal=Review of Educational Research|volume=68|issue=2|pages=179–201|doi=10.3102/00346543068002179|s2cid=220488826 |access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227232933/https://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00190680/file/deJong-Ton-1998b.pdf|url-status=live))
*Dalgarno, B. (1996) Constructivist computer assisted learning: theory and technique, ''ASCILITE Conference'', 2–4 December 1996, retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20140902003411/http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide96/papers/21.html
*Hilbert, T. S., & Renkl, A. (2007). Learning how to Learn by Concept Mapping: A Worked-Example Effect. ''Oral presentation at the 12th Biennial Conference EARLI 2007'' in Budapest, Hungary
*Jeffery, G. (ed) (2005) ''The creative college: building a successful learning culture in the arts'', Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.
*Jonassen, D., Mayes, T., & McAleese, R. (1993). A manifesto for a constructivist approach to uses of technology in higher education. In T.M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D.H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning (pp.&nbsp;231–247). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
* ((cite journal|doi=10.1016/0959-4752(93)90011-N|author=Leutner, D.|year=1993|title=Guided discovery learning with computer-based simulation games: effects of adaptive and non-adaptive instructional support|journal=Learning and Instruction|volume=3|issue=2|pages=113–132))
*Piaget, Jean. (1950). ''The Psychology of Intelligence''. New York: Routledge.
* [[Jean Piaget]] (1967). ''Logique et Connaissance scientifique'', Encyclopédie de la Pléiade.
* ((cite journal|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.334|author1=Tuovinen, J. E.|author2=Sweller, J.|s2cid=54592195|name-list-style=amp|year=1999|title=A comparison of cognitive load associated with discovery learning and worked examples|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=334–341))
* ((cite journal|author1=Rivers, R. H.|author2=Vockell, E.|year=1987|title=Computer simulations to Simulate scientific problems solving|journal=Journal of Research in Science Teaching|volume=24|issue=5|pages=403–416|doi=10.1002/tea.3660240504|bibcode=1987JRScT..24..403R))
((Refend))

==External links==
((Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=constructivism))
* [http://dougiamas.com/writing/constructivism.html A journey into Constructivism] by Martin Dougiamas, 1998–11.
* [http://www.promisingpractices.net/program.asp?programid=114 Cognitively Guided Instruction reviewed on the Promising Practices Network]
* [http://www.adaptivecurriculum.com Sample Online Activity Objects Designed with Constructivist Approach] (2007)
* [http://www.liberalexchange.org Liberal Exchange learning resources offering a constructivist approach to learning English as a second/foreign language]  (2009)
* Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2018). [http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/2018-03-lutz-huitt-brilliant-star-cognitive-development.pdf "Connecting cognitive development and constructivism."] In W. Huitt (Ed.), ''Becoming a Brilliant Star: Twelve core ideas supporting holistic education'' (pp.&nbsp;45–63). IngramSpark. 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140527064759/http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/savage.html#def_constructivism Definition of Constructivism by Martin Ryder] (a footnote to the book chapter [https://web.archive.org/web/20140527064759/http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/savage.html The Cyborg and the Noble Savage] where Ryder discusses [[Olpc|One Laptop Per Child's]] XO laptop from a constructivist educator's point of view)

((Standards-based Education Reform))
((Authority control))

((DEFAULTSORT:Constructivism))
[[Category:Education reform]]
[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Constructivism (psychological school)]]

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