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[[File:Disabled Iraqi T-54A, T-55, Type 59 or Type 69 tank and burning Kuwaiti oil field.jpg|alt=Burning oil field, framed between the body and gun of a wrecked tank|thumb|Disabled tank and burning oil field]]

The [[Gulf War|1991 Gulf War]] and the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq War]] brought about a significant negative impact on the [[environmental issues|environment]]. Indeed, [[Arab States of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]], especially [[Kuwait]] and [[Iraq]], faced serious [[environmental disaster]]s after the wars.

Environmental impacts, due to the war along with the deployment of chemical agents, involve harmful repercussions on both the natural environment and the health of the population of the whole region.

This article presents the effects of the Gulf War and Iraq War on the environment and nature, and the impacts on the population and specifically veterans' health.

== Wars timeline ==

* The [[Iran–Iraq War]] from September 1980 to August 1988.

* In 1990, Iraq invaded [[Kuwait]] claiming that Kuwait was a part of [[Iraq]] and also  that [[Kuwait]] stole [[oil]] from it. This Gulf War resulted in [[Operation Desert Storm]] in which [[Saddam Hussein]] was defeated.

* In March 2003, the US, UK, and Australia invaded Iraq. This again was a much smaller war than the first one, but the security situation deteriorated later.<ref name="encyclopedia.com">((cite web|title=Persian Gulf Wars|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com|publisher=The Columbia Encyclopedia))</ref>

((Further|Iran–Iraq War#Attacks on shipping|Gulf War|Iraq War))

== The effects ==
=== Environment ===

The environmental impact of the Gulf War of 1991 was unprecedented. Huge quantities of crude oil, going up to approximately 3.5 million tons, were released into the desert, while another 800,000 tons of oil spilled into the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>((Cite journal |last=Sand |first=Peter H. |date=2011 |title=Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0272503700048254/type/journal_article |journal=Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting |language=en |volume=105 |pages=430–433 |doi=10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430 |s2cid=156362940 |issn=0272-5037|url-access=subscription ))</ref> 

Consequently, the burning oil wells created 250 oil lakes covering approximately 50 square kilometers in the desert due to the sixty million barrels of oil that came from the burning oil wells.<ref>((Cite journal |last=HEGAZY |first=AHMAD K. |date=1997 |title=International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44519245 |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=83–84 |jstor=44519245 |issn=0376-8929))</ref> 

As a result, between six and eight million barrels of oil are estimated to be at the core of marine environment pollution.<ref>((Cite journal |last=HEGAZY |first=AHMAD K. |date=1997 |title=International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44519245 |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=83–84 |jstor=44519245 |issn=0376-8929))</ref>

By the February 27th ceasefire, the Saudi coast had suffered extensive damage over a distance of more than 100 miles. In this regard, oil, up to 15 inches deep in certain areas, devastated the nesting grounds of endangered sea turtles, birds, fisheries, and shrimp-spawning areas.<ref name="Sand 2011 430–433">((Cite journal |last=Sand |first=Peter H. |date=2011 |title=Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-asil-annual-meeting/article/abs/catastrophic-environmental-damage-and-the-gulf-war-reparation-awards-the-experience-of-the-un-compensation-commission/B6FAA45B59835B5B13BB7E6D7C805C8B |journal=Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting |language=en |volume=105 |pages=430–433 |doi=10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430 |s2cid=156362940 |issn=0272-5037|url-access=subscription ))</ref> Beaches, tide pools, and seagrass beds had been damaged, and thousands of rare herons, flamingos, and other bird species were killed.<ref name="Sand 2011 430–433"/> 

Furthermore, the Sea Island Terminal oil spill on January 25, 1991, off the Saudi coast, was estimated to cover a stretch of approximately 10–15 miles during the Gulf War ceasefire.<ref>https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400071151a.pdf</ref> The second major oil slick occurred off the Kuwaiti-Saudi coast, also originating from the Mina al Bakr offshore terminal of Iraq, with a length of about 10 miles. By February 26, 1991, more than 600 oil wells were burning, thereby forming a thick smoke that engulfed the region and resulted in a significant drop in the temperatures in Kuwait. 

Moreover, the environmental repercussions extended over 1000 kilometres away to southern [[Turkey]], where black acidic rain fell in March 1991. This rain was a result of carbon particles from the burning Kuwaiti [[Oil well fire|oil fires]], carried by winds and affecting countries like [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], and [[Syria]].  
In addition, Iran experienced water supply and crop irrigation issues due to the black rain, as well.<ref name="Glassman 1991 43–45">((Cite journal |last1=Glassman |first1=Laura |last2=Walsh |first2=Jacquelyn |date=1991 |title=War in the Gulf: Post Mortem of an Environmental Tragedy: Oil Spills and Oil Fires |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43882945 |journal=Earth Island Journal |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=43–45 |jstor=43882945 |issn=1041-0406))</ref>

The 1991 Gulf War entailed further environmental consequences, such as damage to sewage treatment plants in Kuwait, leading to the release of nearly 50,000 cubic meters of raw sewage into Kuwait Bay daily.<ref>((Cite journal |title= The environmental damage of war in Iraq|newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/19/iraq5 |date=19 January 2003 ))</ref>

Eventually, approximately 800 oil wells in [[Kuwait]] kept on burning in Kuwait for several months, leading to the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, radium, hydrogen carbons, and hydrogen sulfide.<ref>((Cite journal |last=HEGAZY |first=AHMAD K. |date=1997 |title=International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44519245 |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=83–84 |jstor=44519245 |issn=0376-8929))</ref>

The atmospheric pollution resulting from the oil fires had health implications for humans, as it led to an increase in oil-related heavy metals in the brain, including indicating nickel, vanadium, selenium, and cobalt in brain tumours, which can cause DNA damage and [[lipid peroxidation]], as evidenced by airborne dust samples collected after the war.<ref>((Cite journal |last=HEGAZY |first=AHMAD K. |date=1997 |title=International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44519245 |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=83–84 |jstor=44519245 |issn=0376-8929))</ref>

=== Health ===

==== The use of chemicals agents ====
During the Gulf Wars, the populations were exposed to chemical agents. Indeed, chemicals agent, for example [[Depleted uranium|Depleted Uranium]] (DU), was used for the first time during the first [[Gulf War]] in the tank [[kinetic energy penetrator]] or [[autocannon]] [[Shell (projectile)|rounds]].

After the Gulf Wars, the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] (VA) and various research organizations have been assessing potential causes of health issues among veterans, including exposure to chemical and biological weapons.

Nonetheless, the use of chemical agents by both the US Army and Iraqi forces remains to date a subject of debate. In 1997, the US government published a report that states that:

: "The [[US Intelligence Community]] (IC) has assessed that Iraq did not use chemical weapons during the Gulf War. However, based on a comprehensive review of intelligence information and relevant information made available by the [[United Nations Special Commission]] (UNSCOM), we conclude that chemical warfare (CW) agent was released as a result of the US postwar demolition of rockets with chemical warheads in a bunker (called Bunker 73 by Iraq) and a pit in an area known as Khamisiyah."<ref>((Cite journal |last=Golomb |first=Beatrice Alexandra |date=2008-03-18 |title=Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and Gulf War illnesses |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages=4295–4300 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0711986105 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2393741 |pmid=18332428|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.4295G |doi-access=free ))</ref>

For example, over 100,000<ref>((Cite web |last=Administration |first=US Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health |title=Chemical & Biological Weapons during Gulf War - Public Health |url=https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/gulfwar/sources/chem-bio-weapons.asp |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.publichealth.va.gov |language=en))</ref> Gulf War Veterans have been exposed to these nerve agents chemicals during the demolition of a munitions storage depot in Khamisiyah.

A study by the Boston School of Public Health has revealed a correlation between veterans deployed in Iraq and the reporting of post-war health symptoms. After their return from the Persian Gulf War, many veterans experienced health symptoms and medical problems. This report states that:

"Persian Gulf-deployed veterans were more likely to report neurological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, cardiac, dermatological, musculoskeletal, psychological and neuropsychological system symptoms than German veterans."<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Proctor |first1=S. P. |last2=Heeren |first2=T. |last3=White |first3=R. F. |last4=Wolfe |first4=J. |last5=Borgos |first5=M. S. |last6=Davis |first6=J. D. |last7=Pepper |first7=L. |last8=Clapp |first8=R. |last9=Sutker |first9=P. B. |last10=Vasterling |first10=J. J. |last11=Ozonoff |first11=D. |date=December 1998 |title=Health status of Persian Gulf War veterans: self-reported symptoms, environmental exposures and the effect of stress |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=1000–1010 |doi=10.1093/ije/27.6.1000 |issn=0300-5771 |pmid=10024195|doi-access=free ))</ref>

==== Gulf War Syndrome ====
The US Department of Veterans Affairs and the [[National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Science]] (NAS) released multiple reports on the Gulf war illnesses, following the conclusion of the Gulf Wars.

According to a 2007 report on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) <ref>((Cite web |date=2013-02-27 |title=Committee on Veterans Affairs: Hearings |url=http://veterans.senate.gov/hearings.cfm?action=release.display&release_id=a22ac85f-bc73-435f-b78b-3b107a51cf87 |access-date=2022-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227190650/http://veterans.senate.gov/hearings.cfm?action=release.display&release_id=a22ac85f-bc73-435f-b78b-3b107a51cf87 |archive-date=2013-02-27 ))</ref> Veterans in Iraq were exposed to various chemical agents including [[Depleted uranium|DU]], [[pesticide]]s, [[Sarin|nerve gas sarin]], and multiple vaccinations.

The report from Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC)<ref>"Scientific Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses: Report and Recommendations" (PDF). United States Department of Veterans Affairs. September 2004. Archived (PDF)from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.</ref> established the link between neurological veterans' illnesses and the exposure [[Neurotoxin|neurotoxins]].

The term "Gulf War illness" or "[[Gulf War syndrome]]" refers to the illness and neurological symptoms as "fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headaches, loss of memory and poor sleep"<ref>((Cite journal |last=Gronseth |first=Gary S. |date=2005-05-01 |title=Gulf War Syndrome: A Toxic Exposure? A Systematic Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0733861904001434 |journal=Neurologic Clinics |series=Toxic and Environmental Neurology |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=523–540 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2004.12.011 |pmid=15757795 |issn=0733-8619))</ref> experienced by veterans after the 1991 Gulf War. This syndrome was associated with different causes such as exposure to depleted uranium, sarin nerve agents, [[Organophosphate|organophosphate pesticides]], and to a lesser extent [[oil well fire]], [[Anthrax vaccines|Anthrax vaccine]] and [[Combat stress reaction|combat stress]].

==== Cancer ====
In the decade following [[Gulf War|Gulf War I]], veterans and Iraqi physicians reported a sharp increase in severe health problems, including [[cancer]], which were attributed to the use of [[depleted uranium]] bullets by the United States.<ref>((Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Scott |date=1999 |title=The Gulf War Battlefield Still "Hot" with Depleted Uranium |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3013322 |journal=Middle East Report |issue=211 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.2307/3013322 |jstor=3013322 |issn=0899-2851))</ref> Depleted uranium is known to be carcinogenic and has been associated with neurologic health problems.<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Shaki |first1=Fatemeh |last2=Zamani |first2=Ehsan |last3=Arjmand |first3=Abdollah |last4=Pourahmad |first4=Jalal |date=December 2019 |title=A Review on Toxicodynamics of Depleted Uranium |url=https://doi.org/10.22037/ijpr.2020.113045.14085 |journal=Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research |volume=18 |issue=Special Issue |pages=90–100 |doi=10.22037/ijpr.2020.113045.14085 |pmc=7393059 |pmid=32802091))</ref><ref name=":0" /> 

As a consequence of weapons testing,  military research, and the extensive use of approximately 1200 tonnes of munitions during the war, Iraq was left grappling with depleted uranium contamination, resulting in elevated levels in the soil.<ref name=":0">((Cite journal |last1=Fathi |first1=Riyad Abdullah |last2=Matti |first2=Lilyan Yaqup |last3=Al-Salih |first3=Hana Said |last4=Godbold |first4=Douglas |date=2013 |title=Environmental pollution by depleted uranium in Iraq with special reference to Mosul and possible effects on cancer and birth defect rates |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27018298 |journal=Medicine, Conflict and Survival |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=7–25 |doi=10.1080/13623699.2013.765173 |jstor=27018298 |pmid=23729095 |s2cid=45404607 |issn=1362-3699|url-access=subscription ))</ref>  Therefore, by 2012, the incidence of [[Lung cancer|lung]] and [[breast cancer]], [[Leukemia]], and [[Lymphoma]] cases had doubled to tripled in many areas of Iraq. The presence of contaminated soil likely affected human health through the food chain, presenting long-term radiation hazards.<ref name=":0" />

==== Post-traumatic Stress disorder ====
In 1995, [[Kuwait]] witnessed a notable incidences of [[posttraumatic stress disorder]]. Approximately 27 percent of the population in [[Kuwait]] have this [[psychiatric disorder]]. 66 percent of those with diagnosable [[PTSD|post-traumatic disorder]] were still dreaming [[nightmares]] about some war events. In addition, many boys were dreaming different [[dreams]] about Saddam trying to kill them or hurt their [[families]]. A [[documentary movie]] about affected families was made. A boy saw his father tortured and then killed by the Iraqi soldiers; after this, the boy lost the ability to speak. Another affected victim has speech problems because Iraqi soldiers forced her to watch her two sons killed.

==== Fertility Problems ====
Source:<ref>((Cite web |title=Pooky's five steps to sustainable lighting |url=https://www.pooky.com/blogs/inspiration/pookys-five-steps-to-sustainable-lighting |access-date=2022-06-22 |website=Pooky Lighting |language=en-GB))</ref>

Some studies point out a link between [[fertility]] problems and the Gulf wars. US veterans from the Gulf Wars faced risks of [[infertility]].<ref name="Group 0–a">((Cite journal |last=Group |first=British Medical Journal Publishing |date=2004-07-22 |title=Gulf war veterans have fertility problems |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/329/7459/0.2 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=329 |issue=7459 |pages=0–a |doi=10.1136/bmj.329.7459.0-a |s2cid=220089580 |issn=0959-8138|url-access=subscription ))</ref> Indeed, research shows that deployed veterans during the Gulf wars faced issues concerning fertility, conceptions or [[Live birth (human)|live births]], and pregnancy fathered problems<ref name="Group 0–a"/>

In times of war, the fertility of the population is also affected. Researches show that the fertility trend in Iraq was in decline, and the war emphasize this trend.<ref>((Cite journal |last=Cetorelli |first=Valeria |date=December 2014 |title=The Effect on Fertility of the 2003-2011 War in Iraq |journal=Population and Development Review |language=en |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=581–604 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00001.x |pmc=4539598 |pmid=26300572))</ref> Moreover, the use of chemicals weapons affected the population fertility. The case of [[Fallujah]] is an example of the impacts of the war on fertility. The city of [[Fallujah]] had been bombed during the war and chemical agents were used. Today, doctors and researchers found that there is an increase in [[congenital defects]] and infertility.<ref>((Cite web |last=Jamail |first=Dahr |title=Fallujah: New kind of siege |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/1/6/fallujah-babies-under-a-new-kind-of-siege |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en))</ref> Many children were born with [[Nervous system disease|nervous system]] problems.

== Cleanup ==
The Persian Gulf countries have a proven record of cooperating towards cleaning up the Gulf ruin and preventing future havoc.

For instance, over the years volunteer Kuwaiti divers have been cleaning the [[benthos]].<ref>((cite web |url=https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2991789&language=en |title=Kuwait Diving Team continues cooperation with UN bureau to maintain clean sea |website=KUNA |access-date=18 May 2023))</ref> They have extracted two [[cannons]] and seven shells. It was common to find a [[turtle]] caught in [[fishing nets]]. [[Saudi Aramco]] was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provided support to other Oil-response [[TEAMS (academic competition)|teams]], distributing protection equipment and materials. Moreover, many [[Saudi Aramco]] employees were involved in volunteer teams to clean up [[marine life]].

The Royal Commission in [[Jubail]] has established a new program to monitor [[oil spill]] or any other [[chemical]] materials. In addition, it studies the possibility of oil leakage and how it can be stopped in an emergency. Also, [[Aramco]] stores additional anti-pollution equipment and ships.

Furthermore, the Gulf Area cleaning endeavours persist nowadays and further extend to the international agenda and fall within the efforts to meet the 14th sustainable development goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda. <ref>((cite web |url=https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/cleaning-coast-persian-gulf#:~:text=Cleaning%20the%20coast%20of%20the%20Persian%20Gulf%201,pollution%20of%20sediments%20of%20the%20sea%20Altri%20elementi |title=Cleaning the coast of the Persian Gulf |website=Department of Economic and Social Affairs |access-date=18 May 2023))</ref>

==Legal liability for the Environmental Damage of Gulf Wars: the UNCC Mechanism==

Within a span of two months after the end of the 1990-1991 Gulf War, an unprecedented post-war mechanism called the United Nations Compensation Commission ([[United Nations Compensation Commission|UNCC]]) was established, marking a significant development in the history of international armed conflicts. The primary objective of this mechanism was not only to assist neighbouring nations in recovering from the extensive personal and financial damages incurred during the war but also to facilitate the restoration of the environmental harm that had been inflicted.<ref>Payne, Cymie, and Peter Sand (eds), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission: Environmental Liability (New York, 2011; online edn, Oxford Academic, 20 Apr. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199732203.001.0001, accessed 25 May 2023.</ref>

In fact, the Gulf Wars gave the impetus to foster public debate about further law-making in the international environmental field and filling the gaps of a legal regime considered unsatisfactory by the environmental community. <ref>https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-879-bothe-bruch-diamond-jensen.pdf</ref>

In this perspective, after the conflict, it was expected that neighboring countries would receive reparations for the damages caused, and Iraq's oil revenues were seen as a viable source of funding. To address this, the UNCC was established with the objective of processing claims and providing compensation for losses and harm resulting from Iraq's illegal invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The 2.69 million claims that were processed were categorized based on the claimant and the type of compensation sought.<ref>"PRESS RELEASE UNITED NATIONS COMPENSATION COMMISSION PAYS OUT US$270 MILLION" (PDF). United Nations Compensation Commission. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.</ref> 

Other than multiple aspects such as personal injuries, fatalities, financial losses suffered by individuals, expenses incurred by neighbouring countries for hosting refugees, as well as damage to businesses and government properties, environmental damage and depletion of natural resources also fell under the "F4" sub-category.<ref>https://uncc.ch/claims</ref>

Through various expert panels, evaluated 170 F4 claims originating from 12 countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the UK, and the USA) and awarded a total of US$5,261 million to 10 countries. This amount constituted only 6.2% of the total claims made and was paid out in five instalments over a span of five years.<ref>file:///Users/letiziaferhati/Downloads/_book_edcoll_9789047421917_Bej.9789004161566.i-1188_011-preview.pdf</ref> 

However, even though claims from the Netherlands and Turkey were unsuccessful and did not receive compensation, stringent oversight measures were implemented to ensure that the funds were utilized as specified, with regular reporting being conducted. To this date, all payments have now been concluded, although certain projects have taken more time than others to be finalized.<ref>https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/02/1111632#:~:text=The%20UNCC%E2%80%99s%20Governing%20Council%20convened%20a%20special%20session,occupation%20of%20Kuwait%2C%20under%20former%20dictator%20Saddam%20Hussein.</ref> 

== References ==
((Reflist))

[[Category:Gulf War]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by country|Gulf wars]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of war]]
[[Category:Impacts of the Iraq War]]

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