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((Short description|Scrutiny and mistreatment of victims of sexual violence))
((Use mdy dates|date = December 2019))
((Use American English|date = December 2019))
((multiple issues|
((POV|date=October 2016))
((Essay|date=October 2016))
((More citations needed|date=October 2016))
((Blacklisted-links|1=
*https://pmcdeadline2.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/civil-complaint-2-wm.pdf
*:''Triggered by <code>\bfiles\.wordpress\.com\b</code> on the global blacklist''|bot=Cyberbot II|invisible=false))
))
((rape))
After a [[sexual assault]] or [[rape]], victims are often subjected to [[scrutiny]] and, in some cases, [[Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims#Post-assault social stigma, mistreatment and abuse|mistreatment]]. Victims undergo medical examinations and are interviewed by police. If there is a criminal trial, victims suffer a loss of privacy, and their credibility may be challenged.  Victims may also become the target of [[slut-shaming]], abuse, [[social stigma]]tization, [[sexual slur]]s and [[cyberbullying]]. These factors, contributing to a [[rape culture]], are among some of the reasons that may contribute up to 80% of all rapes going unreported in the U.S, according to a 2016 study done by the U.S. Department of Justice.<ref>((Cite web |title=Sexual Assault Remains Dramatically Underreported |url=https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/sexual-assault-remains-dramatically-underreported |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=www.brennancenter.org |language=en))</ref> ((citation needed|date=June 2017))

Various laws have been created with a motive to protect victims.  During criminal proceedings, [[publication ban]]s and [[rape shield laws]] protect victims from excessive public scrutiny.  Laws may also prohibit defense lawyers from obtaining a victim's medical, psychiatric or therapeutic records. [[Statutory rape]] laws set the age of legal consent for sexual activity and prohibits perpetrators from alleging the victim consented to the activity.  Victims in some jurisdictions can seek damages from police and institutions if warnings were not issued.  Numerous victims' rights groups operate to improve the treatment of victims.((citation needed|date=June 2017))

== Examination and investigation of victim ==
((Further|Rape#Treatment))

===Medical examination and "rape kits"===
((Main| Rape kit))
Following a rape, a victim may seek medical care and obtain a medical examination that obtains and preserves physical evidence. Examiners may collect fingernail scrapings and pluck head and pubic hairs.<ref name="Untested Kits">((cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Rebecca|last2=Feeney|first2=Hannah|last3=Fehler-Cabral|first3=Giannina|last4=Shaw|first4=Jessica|last5=Horsford|first5=Sheena|title=The National Problem of Untested Sexual Assault Kits (SAKs): Scope, Causes, and Future Directions for Research, Policy, and Practice|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|volume=18|issue=4|date=December 23, 2015|pages=363–376|doi=10.1177/1524838015622436|pmid=26698602|s2cid=35057287))</ref> If the facility has the means the examiner will also take photographs of genital injuries.<ref name="Untested Kits" />  A '[[rape kit]]' contains the items used by medical personnel for gathering and preserving physical evidence.

Many "rape kits" are untested because they are never submitted to [[crime lab]]s or because crime labs have insufficient resources to [[DNA profiling|test]] all of the submitted kits.<ref name="Untested Kits"/><ref name="RAINN backlog">((cite web|title=Addressing the Rape Kit Backlog|url=https://rainn.org/public-policy/legislative-agenda/fighting-sexual-violence-with-DNA|website=Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network|publisher=RAINN|access-date=13 May 2016))</ref><ref name="Campbell (2016) re Serial Rapists">((cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=R.|last2=Feeney|first2=H.|last3=Pierce|first3=S. J.|last4=Sharma|first4=D. B.|last5=Fehler-Cabral|first5=G.|title=Tested at Last: How DNA Evidence in Untested Rape Kits Can Identify Offenders and Serial Sexual Assaults.|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=33|issue=24|pages=3792–3814|date=March 27, 2016|issn=1552-6518|doi=10.1177/0886260516639585|pmid=27021733|s2cid=32860558))</ref>  In the United States, national surveys of law enforcement agencies suggest there may be upwards of 200,000 untested rape kits in 2015.<ref>((cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Rebecca|title=Tested at Last How DNA Evidence in Untested Rape Kits Can Identify Offenders and Serial Sexual Assaults|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|volume=33|issue=24|pages=3792–3814|date=March 27, 2016|doi=10.1177/0886260516639585|pmid=27021733|s2cid=32860558|quote=Large numbers of untested SAKs have been found in cities throughout the United States, including New York City (~16,000), Los Angeles (~13,000), Memphis (~12,000), Detroit (~11,000), Houston (~6,000), Dallas (~4,000), and Cleveland (~4,000; see Campbell, Feeney, et al., 2015).))</ref>

The [[Sexual Assault Survivors' Rights Act|Survivors' Bill of Rights Act of 2016]] enacted by the United States federal government gives victims the right to:<ref>((cite web|title=H.R.5578 - Survivors' Bill of Rights Act of 2016|date = October 7, 2016|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/5578/text?resultIndex=3|publisher=United States Congress|access-date=9 October 2016|language=en))</ref> 
* request the preservation of sexual assault evidence collection kit or its probative contents;
* have the sexual assault evidence collection kit preserved, without charge, for the duration of the maximum applicable statute of limitations or 20 years, whichever is shorter; and
* be informed of any result of a sexual assault evidence collection kit, including a DNA profile match, toxicology report, or other information collected as part of a medical forensic examination, if the disclosure would not impede or compromise an ongoing investigation.<ref>((cite web|title=H.R.5578 - Survivors' Bill of Rights Act of 2016|date=October 7, 2016|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/5578/text|publisher=United States Congress|access-date=9 October 2016|location=Chapter 238 - Section 3772|language=en))</ref>

In 2019, the [[Debbie Smith Act|Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2019]] was enacted to provide funding to help eliminate backlogs in rape kit testing.  More than 100,000 rape kits in the United States remain untested.<ref>((cite news |author1=Lauren Lantry |title=Trump signs bill to help eliminate backlog in rape kit testing |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/trump-signs-bill-eliminate-backlog-rape-kit-testing/story?id=67997113 |access-date=18 January 2020 |agency=ABC News |date=December 31, 2019 |language=en))</ref>

=== Interview by police ===
As part of police investigations, victims are interviewed by police.  The interview is usually recorded, and a transcript may be prepared.

If police believe the reported victim is making a [[false accusation of rape]], they may interrogate that person as a suspect rather than a victim.  In some cases, harsh questioning and social stigmatization has caused even actual victims of rape to recant and then be charged with making a false report.<ref>((cite book |title=A False Report: A True Story of Rape in America |year=2018 |last=Miller |first=T. Christian |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn= 978-1524759933))</ref>

=== Treatment of Victims during Court hearings ===
A study done in Australia by the Crime Statistics Agency revealed that most reports of sexual assault to the Police do not make it past the initial stage, with "police identifying an offender for half of incidents reported to them and charging an offender for one in four".<ref>((Cite web |date=2021-09-03 |title=High 'drop-off' rate of sexual offences through the justice system revealed |url=https://www.crimestatistics.vic.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/high-drop-off-rate-of-sexual-offences-through-the-justice-system |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=www.crimestatistics.vic.gov.au |language=en))</ref>

If rape accusations reported to Police head to trial, further questioning and public scrutiny may impact on a victim's recovery and compound their trauma. Typically, the cross-examination will scrutinize the “reliability of the witness, the plausibility of an alleged assault or the credibility or consistency of evidence”. <ref>((Cite news |date=2021-03-24 |title=A child victim was asked 1,000 questions in a sexual offence trial. Now, there are calls for change |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-25/experts-question-how-justice-system-deals-with-sexual-offences/13248172 |access-date=2023-10-05))</ref>

Australian Criminologist Dr. Andy Kaladelfos says that the treatment of sexual assault survivors during trials is worse than it was during the 1950’s in Australia. Dr. Kaladelfos says this treatment is one of the reasons many drop their cases before or during the trial, with many describing the experience akin to reliving the experience or “another rape”. Victims are asked to describe in detail the experience, as well as personal information such as what clothes they were wearing, and other unrelated information not directly involved in the incident, such as their background and relationship history. Questions like these are typically only directed at the victims, and can confuse, mislead, or intimidate victims, Dr. Kaladelfos says. The length of defendant cross-examination questioning has risen by approximately 30% since the 1950’s - in the case of child case examinations, they are now three times as long. He cites one child victim who was asked 1,000 questions during a cross-examination. <ref>((Cite news |date=2021-03-24 |title=A child victim was asked 1,000 questions in a sexual offence trial. Now, there are calls for change |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-25/experts-question-how-justice-system-deals-with-sexual-offences/13248172 |access-date=2023-10-05))</ref>

===Confidentiality, harassment, smear campaigns and silencing===
((See also|Nate Parker#1999 rape charges))
In Canada, pursuant to sections 278.1 to 278.91 of the ''Criminal Code'' defence counsel are not allowed to obtain a victim's medical, psychiatric or therapeutic records .<ref>((cite web|title=Section 278.1 - Criminal Code of Canada|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/page-65.html#docCont|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=9 October 2016|language=en))</ref>  The prohibition was found to be constitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada even though it limited the accused ability to provide a full answer and defence; see [[R v Mills|''R. v Mills'']].

An accused may hire a private investigator to investigate and harass a victim.  For example, according to the complaint in the civil lawsuit against Penn State University, [[Nate Parker]] hired a private investigator to investigate and harass an 18-year-old student.  The student alleged she was raped by Parker and another student.<ref>((cite news|author1=Kate Briquelet|author2=M.L. Nestel|title=Inside the Nate Parker Rape Case|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/08/16/inside-the-nate-parker-rape-case.html|access-date=10 October 2016|publisher=The Daily Beast|date=August 16, 2016|language=en))</ref><ref name="DoePennStateComplaint-2002">((cite web|title=Jane Doe vs. Pennsylvania State University (4.02-cv-00369.JEJ)|url=https://pmcdeadline2.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/civil-complaint-2-wm.pdf|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|access-date=August 16, 2016|date=March 6, 2002))</ref><ref>((cite news|author1=Jacqueline Williams|author2=Serge F. Kovalesk|title=Nate Parker's Past Surfaces in Prosecutors' Investigation of Penn State|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/28/movies/nate-parkers-past-surfaces-in-prosecutors-investigation-of-penn-state.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=first-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news&_r=0&mtrref=www.nytimes.com&gwh=6CF409F6805DD86581D901190E712837&gwt=pay|access-date=28 October 2016|agency=New York Times|work=New York Times|date=October 28, 2016|language=en))</ref> The harassment included exposing the victim's identity by posting enlarged photos of the victim around the university campus.  The lawsuit against Penn State was settled for $17,500.<ref>((cite web|author1=Mike Millar|title=Nate Parker Told Rape Accuser 'You Put Yourself in That Situation' and More Shocking Details from the 1999 Case|url=http://people.com/crime/nate-parker-rape-trial-details-from-1999-case-involving-birth-of-nation-star/|publisher=People Magazine|access-date=2 November 2016|language=en))</ref> (Parker was found not guilty of the rape charges.  The student attempted suicide three months after the assault<ref name="DoePennStateComplaint-2002"/> and died by suicide at age 30.)<ref>((cite news |last=Setoodeh |first=Ramin |url=https://variety.com/2016/film/news/nate-parkers-accuser-committed-suicide-in-2012-her-brother-speaks-out-exclusive-1201838508/ |title=Nate Parker's Rape Accuser Committed Suicide in 2012: Her Brother Speaks Out (EXCLUSIVE) |work=Variety |date=2016-08-16 |accessdate=2021-11-16 ))</ref>

Institutions may attempt to cover up sexual abuse, as seen in the [[Catholic Church sexual abuse cases]]. The movie ''[[Spotlight (film)|Spotlight]]'' deals with the coverup of sexual abuse by Catholic priests.<ref>((cite news |last=VanDerWerff |first=Emily |url=https://www.vox.com/culture/2015/11/13/9730224/spotlight-movie-review-boston |title=5 ways Spotlight turns the process of journalism into riveting drama |work=Vox |date=2015-11-13 |accessdate=2021-11-16 ))</ref>

[[Dennis Hastert]] allegedly promised to pay $5 million to his victim in exchange for agreeing not to discuss the [[Sexual assault|sexual assaults]] he committed.<ref>((cite news|author1=Christy Gutowski|title=Judge may rule whether lawsuit filed by Dennis Hastert victim can proceed|agency=Chicago Tribune|publisher=Chicago Tribune|date=October 14, 2016|language=en))</ref>

Authorities may fail to investigate allegations of sexual assault because the victims are perceived to be unreliable witnesses.<ref name="The Telegraph">((cite news|title=Three Girls: who is Sara Rowbotham? The sexual health worker behind the uncovering of the Rochdale child-abuse scandal|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/0/three-girls-sara-rowbotham-sexual-health-worker-hero-behind/|access-date=27 May 2017|publisher=The Telegraph|date=May 23, 2017|language=en))</ref> The [[BBC One]] miniseries ''[[Three Girls (miniseries)|Three Girls]]'' deals with the systematic sexual abuse of young girls by a group of older Asian men in [[Rochdale child sex abuse ring|Rochdale]].  Authorities were slow to respond even though more than 100 referrals were made to the police and social services.<ref name="The Telegraph"/>

[[Harvey Weinstein]] dispatched defense lawyers and publicists to undermine the credibility of his accusers.<ref>((cite news|last1=Haag|first1=Matthew|title=Harvey Weinstein Accused in Lawsuit of Sexually Assaulting Producer for Years|work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/nyregion/harvey-weinstein-sexual-assault.html?module=WatchingPortal&region=c-column-middle-span-region&pgType=Homepage&action=click&mediaId=thumb_square&state=standard&contentPlacement=6&version=internal&contentCollection=www.nytimes.com&contentId=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F05%2F02%2Fnyregion%2Fharvey-weinstein-sexual-assault.html&eventName=Watching-article-click|access-date=2 May 2018|agency=New York Times|date=May 2, 2018))</ref>

==Campus sexual assault victims==

In the United States, various legislation, government agencies, and initiatives have been created to deal with [[campus sexual assault]].  These include:

* [[White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault]]
* [[Title IX]] requires schools receiving federal funds to protect students from gender-based violence and harassment—including sexual assault.<ref>((cite web|title=Title IX and Sexual Violence in Schools|url=https://www.aclu.org/title-ix-and-sexual-violence-schools?redirect=womens-rights/title-ix-and-sexual-violence-schools|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union|access-date=12 October 2016|language=en))</ref> The [[Office for Civil Rights]] investigates Title IX sexual violence complaints.
* The [[Campus Accountability and Safety Act]] (CASA) is a United States bill to reform the sexual assault investigation process and protect victims.  CASA includes a requirement that colleges and universities publish statistics relating to crime on their campuses.
* The [[Safe Campus Act]] is proposed U.S. legislation that would require schools to report allegations of sexual assault to law enforcement, but only if the victim consents.  However, if the victim does not consent the statute prohibits schools from initiating their own internal disciplinary procedures.

''[[The Hunting Ground]]'' is a critically acclaimed American documentary film about the incidence of sexual assault on college campuses in the United States.  Its creators say college administrations are failing to respond adequately to claims of sexual assault, while its critics have countered that the film was based on misleading statistics and biased against the alleged perpetrator.

==Sexual assault victims in the military==
((See also|Military sexual trauma||Sexual harassment in the military))

[[Sexual assault]] in the military is more prevalent than outside of the military,((citation needed|date=May 2019)) and it is frequently underreported. In the United States, [[Sexual Assault Prevention Response]] is a training program designated to educate military service members and provide support and treatment to service members and their families.  Individuals are assigned to an advocate, who assists them with the different treatment options that are available to them and educates them about their rights.

==Sexual assault of prisoners==

The [[Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003|Prison Rape Elimination Act]] is United States legislation enacted for the purpose of preventing sexual assaults in U.S. prisons.  The legislation requires reporting and information gathering.

((Main|Prison rape in the United States))

==Publication bans, duty to warn and self-censorship==

=== Bans on publishing the victim's name ===
((Main|Publication ban))

In the United States, laws prohibiting the publication of a victim's name have been found to be unconstitutional and struck down.<ref>[https://www.ncjrs.gov/ovc_archives/directions/chap13.htm New Directions from the Field: Victims Rights and Services for the 21st Century] (Chapter 13), accessed October 16, 2012.</ref>  In ''[[Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn]]''  ((ussc|420|469|1975)), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled a Georgia statute that imposed civil liability on media for publishing a rape victim's name was unconstitutional.  The Court stated: "the First and Fourteenth Amendments command nothing less than that the States may not impose sanctions on the publication of truthful information contained in official court records open to public inspection."  Also see ''[[Florida Star v. B. J. F.]]'', ((ussc|491|524|1989)) and ''State of Florida v. Globe Communications Corp.'', 648 So.2d 110 (Fla. 1994).

In Canada, the [[Canadian Press]] generally does not publish the names of alleged [[sexual assault]] victims without their consent.<ref>((cite news|title=Alleged victim in Quebec politician sex assault case speaks|url=https://www.msn.com/en-ca/news/politics/alleged-victim-in-quebec-politician-sex-assault-speaks/ar-AAjeZaj?li=AAggFp5&ocid=mailsignout|access-date=22 October 2016|agency=The Canadian Press|date=October 21, 2016|language=en))</ref>  In addition, a court order may operate to prohibit publication.  Pursuant to paragraph 486.4(1)(a) of the ''[[Criminal Code]]'', the court may make an order "directing that any information that could identify the complainant or a witness" not be published, broadcast or transmitted for any sexual offences.<ref>((cite web|title=Paragraph 486.4 of Criminal Code of Canada|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/page-106.html#docCont|website=Department of Justice (Canada)|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=21 September 2016|language=en))</ref>  The victim has the option of waiving the [[publication ban]].

===Bans on publishing names of accused juveniles===

In cases where the accused is under 18 years of age, the court may impose a publication ban to protect the privacy of the offender.

After 17-year-old [[Sexual assault of Savannah Dietrich|Savannah Dietrich]] pursued a case against two teenage boys for sexual assault, the court initially prohibited anyone from discussing the case. Dietrich was threatened by the accused to be found in [[contempt of court|contempt]] when she published the names of the perpetrators on social media, but the court then clarified that no "gag order" was in place.<ref>((cite web|last=Plait |first=Phil |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2012/07/23/savannah_dietrich_outs_her_rapists_on_twitter_and_facebook.html |title=Savannah Dietrich outs her rapists on Twitter and Facebook |publisher=Slate.com |date=2012-07-23 |access-date=2013-01-07))</ref>

In Canada, the section 110 of the ''[[Youth Criminal Justice Act]]'' generally prohibits the publication of the name of the offender if the offender was under the age of 18 at the time of the offence.<ref>((cite web|title=Youth Criminal Justice Act|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/y-1.5/page-21.html#h-33|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=29 October 2016|page=Section 110|language=en))</ref>
((see also|Youth Criminal Justice Act#Privacy))

===Duty to warn the public===
((Main|Duty to warn#Criminal Activity and Sexual Assault))

The police, colleges and universities may be required to warn the public that a [[sexual assault]] has occurred.  Women should be warned of the risk they face and have the opportunity to take any specific measures to protect themselves from future attacks.<ref>((cite web|author1=Justice Macfarland|title=Doe v. Metropolitan Toronto (Municipality) Commissioners of Police, 1998 CanLII 14826 (ON SC)|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/1998/1998canlii14826/1998canlii14826.html?autocompleteStr=jane%20doe&autocompletePos=2|publisher=Ontario Court (General Division)|access-date=18 October 2016|language=en|date=July 3, 1998|quote=Ms. Doe brings a suit against the Metropolitan Toronto Police Force (hereafter referred to as MTPF) on two bases; firstly she suggests that the MTPF conducted a negligent investigation in relation to the balcony rapist and failed to warn women whom they knew to be potential targets of Callow of the fact that they were at risk. She says, as the result of such conduct, Callow was not apprehended as early as he might otherwise have been and she was denied the opportunity, had she known the risk she faced, to take any specific measures to protect herself from attack.))</ref>

Victims of sexual assault may sue for damages if warnings are not issued.  In 1998, a sexual assault victim successfully sued the Toronto police for their failure to warn her that a serial rapist was active in her neighbourhood.<ref>((cite web|title=Jane Doe v. Metropolitan Toronto (Municipality) Commissioners of Police|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/1998/1998canlii14826/1998canlii14826.html?autocompleteStr=jane%20doe&autocompletePos=2|publisher=Ontario Court (General Division)|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en))</ref>  The complainant in the [[Nate Parker]] case sued [[Pennsylvania State University]] for violating her [[Title IX]] rights.<ref name="DoePennStateComplaint-2002"/>

((See also|Title IX#Impact))
((See also|United States v. Morrison))

In the United States, the [[Clery Act]] imposes fines on colleges and universities that fail to warn students of criminal activity on or near campuses.  The law is named after Jeanne Clery, a 19-year-old Lehigh University student who was raped and murdered in her campus hall of residence in 1986.  In relation to the [[Jerry Sandusky]] sexual abuse scandal, U.S. federal investigators are seeking to fine Penn State University $2.4 million for failing to warn of threats to the campus.<ref>((cite news|author1=Nick Anderson|title=Feds seek record $2.4 million fine against Penn State in Sandusky scandal|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/feds-seek-record-24-million-fine-against-penn-state-in-sandusky-scandal/2016/11/03/7fbe7bf8-a1cd-11e6-8832-23a007c77bb4_story.html?hpid=hp_hp-more-top-stories_pennstate-250pm%3Ahomepage%2Fstory|access-date=4 November 2016|agency=Washington Post|date=November 3, 2016|language=en))</ref>

((See also|Murder of Laura Dickinson#Aftermath))

===Censorship by travel websites===
[[TripAdvisor]] apologized for repeatedly deleting forum posts about a resort where the victim had been raped by a security guard.<ref>((cite web|author1=Karen Schwartz|title=TripAdvisor to flag hotels where sexual assault occurred|date=November 9, 2017|url=https://www.thestar.com/business/2017/11/09/tripadvisor-to-indicate-hotels-where-sexual-assault-occurred.html|publisher=Toronto Star|access-date=10 November 2017|language=en))</ref>

=== Self-censorship ===
Self-censorship is when publications or people censor themselves in order to withhold information to protect their image or avoid receiving backlash. Some instances include:

* '''Self-censorship because subject is distasteful''' – Newspapers may [[self-censor]], choosing not to publish material about a sexual assault on the grounds that the subject is distasteful.  For example, there were complaints when ''[[The Des Moines Register]]'' published stories about the rape of [[Taking Back My Life: The Nancy Ziegenmeyer Story|Nancy Ziegenmeyer]].  One reader complained: "The disgusting and degrading details of Nancy Ziegenmeyer's rape have no place in a family newspaper the caliber of ''The Register''."<ref name="nytimes.com">((cite news|author1=David Margolick|title=A Name, a Face and a Rape: Iowa Victim Tells Her Story|work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/25/us/a-name-a-face-and-a-rape-iowa-victim-tells-her-story.html?pagewanted=all|access-date=13 February 2017|agency=New York Times|date=March 25, 1990|language=en))</ref>
* '''Self-censorship because of ethnicity of the accused''' – Publication of information regarding sexual assaults may be suppressed because of fears of being thought racist.<ref name="BBC News Online">((cite web|author1=Katie Hall|title=Real or imagined: Racism 'fear' over Rotherham child abuse|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-south-yorkshire-28951612|publisher=BBC News Online|access-date=9 October 2016|language=en|date=August 27, 2014))</ref>  A 2006 report regarding the [[Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal|child sexual assaults in Rotherham, England]], stated: "It is believed by a number of workers that one of the difficulties that prevent this issue [child sexual exploitation] being dealt with effectively is the ethnicity of the main perpetrators."<ref name="BBC News Online"/><ref>((cite web|author1=Alexis Jay OBE|title=Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham (1997 – 2013)|url=http://www.rotherham.gov.uk/downloads/file/1407/independent_inquiry_cse_in_rotherham|publisher=Rotherham Metropolitan Borough Council|access-date=9 October 2016|pages=2|language=en|quote=By far the majority of perpetrators were described as 'Asian' by victims, yet throughout the entire period, councillors did not engage directly with the Pakistani-heritage community to discuss how best they could jointly address the issue. Some councillors seemed to think it was a one-off problem, which they hoped would go away. Several staff described their nervousness about identifying the ethnic origins of perpetrators for fear of being thought racist; others remembered clear direction from their managers not to do so.))</ref> With respect to the [[Rochdale child sex abuse ring]], it was suggested that police and social work departments failed to act when details of the gang emerged for fear of appearing racist, and vulnerable white teenagers being groomed by Pakistani men were ignored.
* '''Self-censorship because "women would become hysterical"''' – In 1998, the Toronto police did not issue warnings regarding a serial rapist "because women would become hysterical or panic" and "the rapist would flee and the investigation would be compromised".<ref>((cite web|author1=Justice MacFarland|title=Doe v. Metropolitan Toronto (Municipality) Commissioners of Police, 1998 CanLII 14826 (ON SC)|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/1998/1998canlii14826/1998canlii14826.html?autocompleteStr=jane%20doe&autocompletePos=2|website=www.Canlii.org|publisher=Ontario Court (General Division)|access-date=18 October 2016|language=en|date=July 3, 1998|quote=Sergeant Cameron indicated, I find, that it was not the practice to issue warnings in such cases because women would become hysterical or panic (I do not see any real difference which word he used, the meaning is the same), the rapist would flee and the investigation would be compromised. Of course it was not true that it was not the policy of the MTPF to issue warnings in such cases because it had been done in the Dawson Davidson case -- just months earlier and in the very same division.))</ref>  The Toronto police were ultimately found liable for damages for [[duty to warn|failing to issue warnings]].
* '''Self-censorship to avoid harming international relations''' – Korea has agreed to refrain from criticising Japan over the issue of [[comfort women]].  During [[World War II]], many Korean women were forced to be the sex slaves of members of the Japanese military.<ref>((cite news|author1=Associated Press|title=Buddhist monk sets himself on fire in South Korea over 'comfort women' deal|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/08/buddhist-monk-sets-himself-on-fire-in-south-korea-over-comfort-women-deal|access-date=8 January 2017|agency=The Guardian|date=January 8, 2017|language=en))</ref>
* '''Self-censorship to avoid deportation and intimidation using "rape trees"''' – Sexual assaults of illegal immigrants are rarely reported as the victims fear they may be deported after coming forward.  Women often seek out birth control methods to prevent pregnancy from anticipated sexual assaults.<ref name="pbs1">((cite news | url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/facing-risk-rape-migrant-women-prepare-birth-control/ | publisher=[[PBS]]| title=Women crossing the U.S. border face sexual assault with little protection | date=31 March 2014 | agency=Fronteras | access-date=4 July 2015 | last1=Joffe-Block | first1=Jude))</ref>

: [[Rape tree]]s are trees or bushes that mark where [[sexual assault]]s have occurred by arranging the victim's undergarments on or around the trees branches or on the ground.<ref name=usnews1>((cite web|last1=Fox|first1=Lauren|title=The Watch|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/07/05/in-south-texas-ranchers-increasingly-fearful-of-immigration|magazine=[[U.S. News & World Report]]))</ref>  "Rape trees" are commonly and increasingly found along the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]] border.<ref name=latina1>((cite web|last1=Rosario|first1=Marielo|title="Rape Trees" Found Along Southern US Border|url=http://www.latina.com/lifestyle/news-politics/rape-trees-found-along-southern-us-border|website=[[Latina (magazine)|Latina]]|publisher=Latina Media Ventures|access-date=7 July 2014|date=March 11, 2009|quote='Rape trees' are popping up in Southern Arizona and their significance is horrific.))</ref><ref name=ST1>((cite web|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Tracy|title=Central American migrants on word-of-mouth exodus to U.S.|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2023988528_migrantstripxml.html?syndication=rss|website=seattletimes.com|publisher=Los Angeles Times|access-date=7 July 2014|date=July 5, 2014))</ref>  The rape trees serve to intimidate illegal immigrants by suggesting the perpetrators are able to commit acts of violence with impunity.

==Financial costs==
Victims may incur various financial costs because of the sexual assault; for example, costs related to moving (to get away from the perpetrator), a new mattress, legal fees, lost wages, lost tuition fees, new clothing, therapy and medication.<ref>((cite news|title=Court to hear appeal in Mandi Gray sex assault case|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/crime/2017/03/13/court-to-hear-appeal-in-mandi-gray-sex-assault-case.html|access-date=14 March 2017|agency=Toronto Star|date=March 14, 2017|language=en))</ref>

==Conduct of legal proceedings==
((Main|Laws regarding rape))

===Statutes of limitations===
A [[statute of limitations]] law may preclude a victim from pressing criminal charges if too many years have passed since the assault occurred.  Limitations periods vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.  For example, in Pennsylvania charges must be filed within 12 years of the assault.<ref>((cite news|author1=Sydney Ember|author2=Graham Bowley|title=After Bill Cosby, States Shift on Statutes of Limitations in Sexual Assault Cases|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/07/arts/television/after-bill-cosby-states-shift-sexual-assault-statutes-of-limitations.html|access-date=7 November 2016|agency=New York Times|work=New York Times|date=November 7, 2016|language=en))</ref>

===Statutory rape===
[[Statutory rape]] is sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the [[age of consent]].  The age of consent is the age at which a young person is capable of [[consent]]ing to sexual activity.<ref>((cite web|title=Queen v. Omar Abdallah Hajar|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/ab/abca/doc/2016/2016abca222/2016abca222.html?searchUrlHash=AAAAAQAPImFnZSBvZiBjb25zZW50AAAAAAE&resultIndex=7|publisher=Alberta Court of Appeal|access-date=18 November 2016|location=Para. 30|language=en|date=July 17, 2016))</ref> These laws were enacted to recognize the inherent power imbalance between adults and children and that children are incapable of giving true consent to sexual acts with adults.  The laws protect children from undue influence, persuasion and manipulation.

In 2016, the Government of Turkey proposed legislation that would overturn a man's conviction for child sex assault if they married their victim.<ref>((cite news|title=Turkish bill to clear men of child sex assault if they marry their victims|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/18/turkish-bill-to-clear-men-of-child-sex-assault-if-the-marry-their-victims|access-date=19 November 2016|agency=The Guardian|date=November 16, 2016|language=en))</ref>

===Consent===
Defence counsel may argue the victim consented to the sexual activity.  Determining if the victim consented can be problematic when the victim is intoxicated.  A [[Nova Scotia]] court found there was no sexual assault because the prosecution could not prove the sexual activity was non-consensual.  In that case, the sexual activity occurred in the back of a taxi cab between a taxi driver and an intoxicated customer.<ref>((cite news|author1=Michael Gorman|title=Crown appeals acquittal in taxi sex assault case where judge said 'drunk can consent'|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/sex-assault-taxi-drunk-1.4013364|access-date=7 March 2017|agency=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|date=March 7, 2017|language=en))</ref>

In 2011, [[Death of Cindy Gladue|Cindy Gladue]] bled to death from an 11-centimetre cut in her vagina.  At trial, the accused said Gladue died after a night of consensual, rough sex in an Edmonton motel.  He was acquitted.  The case is being appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada.<ref>((cite news |author1=Chris Purdy |title=Supreme Court to hear questions in case of Ontario trucker acquitted in death of Edmonton woman |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/supreme-court-cindy-gladue-sexual-assault-1.4855218 |access-date=13 October 2018 |agency=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=October 9, 2018 |language=en))</ref>((update needed|date=October 2023))

Discrepancies between the victim's statements to police and other evidence are grounds for the defence lawyer to [[witness impeachment|impeach]] the [[credible witness|credibility]] of the victim.

In investigations involving [[acquaintance rape|acquaintance]] or [[date rape]], the electronic communications between the accused and the victim may be reviewed in order to determine if the victim [[consent]]ed to the sexual activity.<ref>((cite web|author1=Justice Zuker|title=R. v. Ururyar - Ontario Court of Justice|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/on/oncj/doc/2016/2016oncj448/2016oncj448.html?autocompleteStr=urur&autocompletePos=1|website=www.Canlii.org|publisher=Ontario Court of Justice|access-date=19 September 2016|location=Paragraphs 52 to 55|language=en))</ref>

In ''[[People v. Jovanovic]]'', the [[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division|New York appeals court]] determined that emails from the alleged victim should be included in evidence and that the [[rape shield law]] did not apply.  The alleged victim had written about her sadomasochistic interests and experiences.

In Canada, a defense lawyer may be allowed to obtain copies of the victim's e-mails and other private documents using a legal procedure called a third-party records application.<ref>((cite news|author1=Sarah Boesveld|author-link1=How did Ghomeshi's defence get hold of 5,000 messages between complainants?|url=http://www.chatelaine.com/news/how-did-ghomehis-defence-get-hold-of-5000-messages-between-complainants/|access-date=19 September 2016|publisher=Chatelaine|title=How did Ghomeshi's defence get hold of 5,000 messages between complainants?|date=February 10, 2016))</ref>

===Rape shield laws===
In Australia,<ref>Australian Government: ALRC: [http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/20.%20Matters%20Outside%20the%20Uniform%20Evidence%20Acts/rape-shield-laws 20. Matters Outside the Uniform Evidence Acts - Rape shield laws]</ref> Canada and the United States, the prior sexual history of the victim is generally not admissible as evidence during a criminal proceeding.  These laws are referred to as [[rape shield laws]].

In Canada, the constitutionality of the [[rape shield law]] was challenged on the grounds that it hampers a defendant's ability to present a defence.  The law was found to be constitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada: see ''[[R v Darrach]]''.

===Misconduct by prosecutors===
In the prosecution of Anthony Broadwater, the man convicted of assaulting [[Alice Sebold]], the prosecutor lied to Sebold.  Sebold was unable to identify Broadwater in a police lineup.  In response, the prosecutor told her that Broadwater had come to the police lineup with a friend for the purpose of confusing her.  Broadwater was convicted of the assault.  Subsequently, attorneys working to exonerate Broadwater argued that the falsehood by the prosecutor had influenced Sebold's testimony.  In her book [[Lucky (memoir)|''Lucky'']], Sebold wrote that the prosecutor had coached her into changing her identification.  Broadwater was exonerated in 2021.

===Victim representation===
In Canadian criminal proceedings, the Crown prosecutor does not act on behalf of the victim and is not the victim's lawyer.<ref name="auto">((cite web|title=A Victim's Guide to the Canadian Criminal Justice System: Questions and Answers|url=https://www.crcvc.ca/docs/A_Victims_Guide_to_the_Canadian_CJS_07.pdf|publisher=Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime|access-date=19 September 2016|language=en))</ref>
<blockquote>'''29. Who represents the victim during the trial? Should I get a lawyer to ensure that my rights are met during the trial?'''<br />
Crown counsel is not and can never function as the victim's lawyer. Although the Crown appears to be representing the interests of the victim, the Crown is the lawyer for the Queen and the government during the trial. In Canadian criminal cases, the harm is perceived to have been committed against the State. This is why cases are referred to as Regina v. Smith (or R. v. Smith), Regina being the Queen in Latin. The Crown is truly representing the society, of which you are a part.<ref name="auto"/> </blockquote>

===Other===
Sexual assault cases commonly involve multiple complainants.  In these cases, the defence is likely to apply for separate trials for each offence.
[[Joinder]] of multiple counts is only permitted in certain circumstances.

The decision to have separate trials is discretionary and is exercised in order to prevent prejudice to the defendant.  The threshold question for holding a joint trial is whether or not each complainant's evidence will be admissible in respect of the charges involving the other complainants (that is, whether such evidence is 'cross-admissible'). Decisions to hold separate trials or refuse to admit relevant tendency or propensity evidence about a defendant's sexual behaviour can be seen as barriers to the successful prosecution of sex offences.<ref>((cite web|title=Family Violence—A National Legal Response|url=https://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/26.%20Reporting%2C%20Prosecution%20and%20Pre-trial%20Processes/joint-or-separate-trial|publisher=Government of Australia - Law Reform Commission|access-date=19 September 2016|location=Section 26 - Joint or separate trial|language=en|date=2010-11-11))</ref>

The sexual assault charges against [[Jian Ghomeshi]] involved multiple complainants and were dealt with in two separate proceedings.<ref>((cite news|author1=Mark Gollom|title=Jian Ghomeshi found not guilty on choking and all sex assault charges|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/jian-ghomeshi-sexual-assault-trial-ruling-1.3505446|access-date=29 October 2016|agency=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|date=March 24, 2016|language=en))</ref> The second trial did not proceed after Ghomeshi agreed to issue an apology.<ref>((cite news|title=CBC apologizes to Kathryn Borel over handling of Jian Ghomeshi complaint|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/cbc-apology-kathryn-borel-ghomeshi-peace-bond-1.3577223|access-date=29 October 2016|agency=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|date=May 11, 2016|language=en))</ref>

A victim of sexual assault may be subjected to speculative allegations of wrongdoing during [[cross-examination]].  For example, in ''R. v. Sofyan Boalag''<ref name="R. v Sofyan Boalag">((cite web|title=R. v Sofyan Boalag|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/nl/nlpc/doc/2016/2016nlpc113/2016nlpc113.html?resultIndex=3|website=www.Canlii.org|publisher=Provincial Court of Newfoundland and Labrador|access-date=19 September 2016|location=Paragraph 105|language=en))</ref> the defence lawyer asserted during the cross-examination that the victim was in fact asking for money in exchange for sex.<ref>((cite news|author1=Rosie Mullaley|title=This man raped me|url=http://www.thetelegram.com/News/Local/2016-06-13/article-4557844/%26lsquo%3BThis-man-raped-me%26rsquo%3B/1|access-date=18 September 2016|publisher=The Telegram|date=June 13, 2016|language=en))</ref>  In that case, the accused was convicted of 13 criminal offences involving six victims including multiple sexual assaults at knifepoint.<ref name="R. v Sofyan Boalag"/>

A victim's alcohol consumption at the time of the assault may undermine the victim's ability to remember the assault and his or her ability to provide credible [[testimony]].  As noted by Justice Zuker of the Ontario Court of Justice: <blockquote>[414] What makes someone a perfect target in the context of alcohol-facilitated [[Sexual assault|sexual assaults]] may make that person a poor witness in any ensuing proceedings due to his or her inability to remember part or all of what happened.
[415] One of the more challenging (and ever-present) issues to evaluate in [[sexual assault]] is the question of [[consent]]. [[Sexual assault|Sexual assaults]] may involve alcohol consumption by one or both parties. Frequently, parties to an incident will have limited or no memory of the events in question, and the court will be required to obtain and evaluate information provided by other witnesses or other corroborating evidence.<ref>((cite web|title=R. v. Ururyar - Ontario Court of Justice 2016 448|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/on/oncj/doc/2016/2016oncj448/2016oncj448.html?autocompleteStr=urur&autocompletePos=1|website=www.Canlii.org|publisher=Ontario Superior Court of Justice|access-date=20 September 2016|location=Paragraphs 414 and 415))</ref> 
</blockquote>

During cross examination a victim's attire may be scrutinized and they may be accused of wearing revealing clothing.  For example, a Toronto woman, who alleged she was sexually assaulted by three police officers after a party, was asked about her choice of wearing a top described as "really low cut with open sleeves" to a party mostly attended by "young men ... who would be drinking."<ref>((cite news|author1=Trevor Dunn|title=Complainant denies defence's claim she wanted sex with Toronto officers accused of assaulting her|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/trial-tps-cross-examination-1.4151926|access-date=9 June 2017|agency=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|date=June 8, 2017|language=en))</ref>

During [[cross-examination]], a victim's criminal record may be noted in order to [[witness impeachment|impeach]] their [[Credible witness|credibility]]. This tactic was unsuccessfully used in the trial of [[Daniel Holtzclaw]].<ref>((cite news|title=Jury convicts ex-Oklahoma cop Daniel Holtzclaw of rape, sodomy charges; faces life in prison|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/jury-convicts-ex-oklahoma-rape-charges-article-1.2462256|access-date=10 October 2016|agency=Daily News|language=en))</ref>

==Post-assault social stigma, mistreatment and abuse==
((See also|Social stigma|Social exclusion|Secondary victimisation))
Victims of sexual assault are often subjected to [[social stigma]]. The victim may be subject to inappropriate post-assault behaviour or language by medical personnel or other organizations.<ref>((cite journal |vauthors=Campbell R, Raja S |title=Secondary victimization of rape victims: insights from mental health professionals who treat survivors of violence |journal=Violence Vict |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=261–75 |year=1999 |pmid=10606433 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.14.3.261 |s2cid=32496184 ))</ref>
[[Slut-shaming]] is the practice of [[victim blaming|blaming the victim]] for [[rape]] and other forms of [[sexual assault]].  It rests on the idea that sexual assault is caused (either in part or in full) by the woman wearing revealing clothing or acting in a sexually provocative manner, before refusing consent to sex,<ref name="asking">((cite journal |last1=McCormack |first1=Clare |last2=Prostran |first2=Nevena |title=Asking for it: a first-hand account from slutwalk |journal=[[International Feminist Journal of Politics]] |year=2012 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=410–414 |doi=10.1080/14616742.2012.699777 |s2cid=143086739 ))</ref> and thereby absolving the perpetrator of guilt.

In 2016, Indian politicians suggested that women's clothing choices could invite sexual assault.  The comments were made after a number of women were molested at a New Year's Eve party in [[Bangalore]].<ref>((cite news|author1=Amy Wang|title=Indian politicians cause outrage after blaming alleged groping on women's 'Western' clothes|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/01/04/indian-politicians-cause-outrage-after-blaming-alleged-groping-on-womens-western-clothes/?hpid=hp_no-name_hp-in-the-news%3Apage%2Fin-the-news|access-date=4 January 2017|agency=Washington Post|date=January 4, 2017|language=en))</ref> On the U.S. television program ''[[The View (U.S. TV series)|The View]]'', [[Joy Behar]] referred to [[Bill Clinton sexual misconduct allegations|Bill Clinton's sexual assault accusers]] as "[[Tramp#Meaning promiscuous woman|tramps]]"; Behar apologized for the [[sexual slur]] shortly afterwards.<ref>((cite web|title=October 10, 2016 Episode of The View|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLXxWH_DiEY|website=Youtube.com|access-date=13 October 2016|pages=21:04 Minutes:Seconds and 22:00|language=en|date=October 10, 2016|quote=tramps))</ref><ref>((cite news|title=The View host Joy Behar apologises for calling Bill Clinton accusers "tramps" on TV after sparking backlash|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/view-host-joy-behar-apologises-9024867|access-date=12 October 2016|agency=Mirror (UK)|date=October 12, 2016|language=en))</ref><ref>((cite news|title=Joy Behar sorry for calling Bill Clinton accusers 'tramps' on 'The View'|url=http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2016/10/11/joy-behar-calls-bill-clinton-accusers-tramps-on-view.html|access-date=12 October 2016|publisher=FoxNews.com|date=October 11, 2016|language=en))</ref><ref>((cite web|title=October 11, 2016 Episode - The View|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3xK0ub1UkI|website=YouTube|access-date=13 October 2016|pages=0:36 Minutes:Seconds|language=en|date=October 11, 2016))</ref>

The [[SlutWalk]] challenges the idea of explaining or excusing rape by referring to any aspect of a woman's appearance.  The SlutWalk was created in response to comments by a Toronto Police officer who said: "I've been told I'm not supposed to say this—however, women should avoid dressing like [[sluts]] in order not to be victimized."<ref name="asking"/><ref name="thestar1">((cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/article/940665--cop-apologizes-for-sluts-remark-at-law-school |title=Cop apologizes for 'sluts' remark at law school |work=Toronto Star |date=February 18, 2011 |access-date=May 29, 2011 |location=Toronto |first=Curtis |last=Rush))</ref>

Sexual assault victims may stay away from work in order to avoid contact with the perpetrator.  For example, Caroline Lamarre, an office worker who was sexually assaulted at work, has not returned to work in order to avoid contact with her assailant.  The assailant was convicted of sexual assault.<ref>((cite news|title=Convicted of sexual assault, Quebec mayor still presides while victim 'becomes the villain'|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/victim-becomes-the-villain-sexually-assaulted-by-quebec-mayor-woman-is-out-of-work-while-he-continues-to-preside|access-date=28 February 2017|publisher=National Post|date=February 28, 2017|language=en))</ref>

Victims of sexual assault may be subjected to [[cyberbullying]], as in the cases of the [[suicide of Audrie Pott]], [[suicide of Rehtaeh Parsons]] and [[sexual assault of Savannah Dietrich]]. The [[Netflix]] documentary ''[[Audrie & Daisy]]'' is about two American high school students who were sexually assaulted by other students.  At the time they were assaulted, [[Audrie Pott]] was 15 and [[Daisy Coleman]] was 14 years old.  After the assaults, the victims and their families were subjected to abuse and cyberbullying.<ref>((cite news|author1=Nosheen Iqbal|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/sep/19/audrie-and-daisy-high-school-sexual-assault-netflix-shame-bullying-teenagers-online|access-date=19 September 2016|work=The Guardian|date=September 19, 2016|title=Audrie and Daisy: an unflinching account of high-school sexual assault|language=en))</ref>

The movie ''[[Taking Back My Life: The Nancy Ziegenmeyer Story]]'' is the true story of Nancy Ziegenmeyer, an Iowa resident who was raped in 1991.  Her story was groundbreaking because she spoke openly about her experiences including her interactions with hospital staff, the police, prosecutors, the accused, and the criminal justice system.<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref name="Chicago Tribune">((cite news|author1=Catharine Reeve|title=Taking Back Her Life - Public Disclosure Helps One Victim Of Rape Become A Survivor|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1992-02-23/features/9201170624_1_nancy-ziegenmeyer-parking-lot-grabbed/2|access-date=13 February 2017|publisher=Chicago Tribune|date=February 23, 1992|language=en))</ref> The ''Des Moines Register'' won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Public Service]] in 1991 for publishing the story of Ziegenmeyer's sexual assault.  At the time the article was published it was unusual to publish the victim's name.<ref>((cite web|title=The 1991 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Public Service|url=http://www.pulitzer.org/winners/des-moines-register|website=Pulitzer.ort|access-date=29 March 2017|language=en))</ref>  Ziegenmeyer wrote a book, ''Taking Back My Life'', to encourage women to seek help after they have been victimized.<ref>((cite web|title=Nancy Ziegenmeyer Interview|url=https://charlierose.com/videos/9927|website=CharlieRose.com|access-date=29 March 2017|language=en))</ref>

The movie ''[[Share (2019 film)|Share]]'' is a story about a 16-year-old girl who is sexually assaulted by boys from her high school and a video of the assault is circulated. She is incessantly harassed with anonymous text messages. The film premiered at the 2019 [[Sundance Film Festival]].

Many celebrities have publicly supported and contributed to making a difference on how victims of sexual assault are perceived. ''[[Law & Order: SVU]]'' actress [[Mariska Hargitay]] has dedicated her life to making a difference in society's views. After gaining her fame playing Olivia Benson, she began receiving letters from fans disclosing their sexual assault stories. This inspired her to start her own nonprofit titled Joyful Heart Foundation. This organization provides resources and support to survivors, while trying to change society's response to assault, and end the violence altogether.<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.joyfulheartfoundation.org/ |title=Joyful Heart Foundation |website=www.joyfulheartfoundation.org|access-date=2019-06-29))</ref> Hargitay puts an emphasis on the fact that anyone can be targeted, and, no matter who they are, they deserve to be treated the same. She stated that while the United States has made progress, we need to not put blame on the victims, no matter the gender.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Gorrell|first=Michael Gorrell|date=2011|title=E-books on EBSCOhost: Combining NetLibrary E-books with the EBSCOhost Platform|journal=Information Standards Quarterly|volume=23|issue=2|pages=31|doi=10.3789/isqv23n2.2011.07|issn=1041-0031))</ref>

In many cultures, rape victims are at very high risk of suffering additional violence or threats of violence after the rape. These acts may be perpetrated by the rapist or by friends and relatives of the rapist as a way of preventing the victims from reporting the rape, of punishing them for reporting it, or of forcing them to withdraw the complaint. In addition, the relatives of the victim may threaten the victim as a punishment for "bringing shame" to the family. This is especially the case in cultures where female [[virginity]] is highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage; in extreme cases, rape victims are killed in [[honor killings]].<ref name="zeenews.india">((cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/uttar-pradesh/rape-victim-threatened-to-withdraw-case-in-up_694364.html |title=Rape victim threatened to withdraw case in UP |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |date=2011-03-19 |access-date=2013-02-03))</ref><ref name="wisemuslimwomen">((cite web |url=http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/currentissues/stigmitizationofrape/ |title=Stigmatization of Rape & Honor Killings |publisher=WISE Muslim Women |date=2002-01-31 |access-date=2013-02-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108041415/http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/currentissues/stigmitizationofrape/ |archive-date=2012-11-08 ))</ref><ref name="bbc">((cite web|last=Harter |first=Pascale |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895 |title=Libya rape victims 'face honour killings' |work=BBC News |date=2011-06-14|access-date=2013-02-03))</ref>

In some countries, girls and women who are raped are forced by their families to marry their rapist. A [[arranged marriage|marriage is arranged]] because victims are deemed to have their "reputation" tarnished. There is extreme social stigma related to being the victim of rape and the loss of virginity. Marriage is claimed to be advantageous for both the victim—who does not remain unmarried and does not lose social status—and of the rapist, who avoids punishment.

In 2012, the [[Suicide of Amina Filali|suicide of a 16-year-old Moroccan girl]]—who, after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist at the suggestion of the prosecutor, and who subsequently endured abuse by the rapist after they married—sparked protests from activists against the law which allows the rapist to marry the victim in order to escape criminal sanctions, and against this social practice which is common in Morocco.<ref>((cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17379721 |title=Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself |work=BBC News |date=2012-03-15 |access-date=2013-02-03))</ref>

In 2016, the government of [[Turkey]] introduced legislation which would overturn a man's conviction for child sex assault if he married his victim.<ref>((cite news|title=Fury at Turkish bill to clear men of child sex assault if they marry victims|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/18/turkish-bill-to-clear-men-of-child-sex-assault-if-the-marry-their-victims|access-date=27 December 2016|agency=The Guardian|date=November 22, 2016|language=en))</ref>((update needed|reason=Was it passed into law?|date=October 2023))

==Victim support==
Victims often receive support from the community and other victims.  For example, when [[Taking Back My Life: The Nancy Ziegenmeyer Story|Nancy Ziegenmeyer]] went public regarding her experience, "she was inundated with letters and phone calls of support, thanks and praise for her courage in going public. Many of the letters were from women who had been raped and had lived with their secrets, often telling no one, often blaming themselves."<ref>((cite news|author1=Catharine Reeve|title=Taking Back Her Life - Public Disclosure Helps One Victim Of Rape Become A Survivor|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1992-02-23/features/9201170624_1_nancy-ziegenmeyer-parking-lot-grabbed/3|access-date=13 February 2017|publisher=Chicago Tribune|date=February 23, 1992|language=en))</ref>

==Victims' rights==
((Main|Victims' rights))

In the United Kingdom, the ''[[Giving Victims a Voice]]'' report was published in response to allegations of sexual abuse made against English DJ and BBC Television presenter [[Jimmy Savile]].  The Director of Public Prosecutions described the report as marking a "watershed moment" and apologised for "shortcomings" in the handling of prior abuse claims. The report's publication resulted in some highlighting what could be systemic failure because of the number of complainants and institutions identified, but others criticised it for treating allegations as facts.

In the United States, the [[Crime Victims' Rights Act]] grants rights to victims including the right to be reasonably protected from the accused.  Similarly, in Canada the ''Canadian Victims Bill of Rights'' provides rights to victims.<ref>((cite web|title=Canadian Victims Bill of Rights|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-23.7/index.html|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=30 October 2016|language=en))</ref>

There are victims' rights groups. [[Rise (non-governmental organization)|Rise]] is an NGO working to implement a bill of rights for [[sexual assault]] victims. The [[Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network]] (RAINN) is an American group which carries out programs to prevent sexual assault, help victims, and to ensure that rapists are brought to justice. The [[Victim Rights Law Center]] is an American non-profit organization that provides free legal services to victims of [[rape]] and sexual assault. In the United States, the [[Office on Violence Against Women]] works to administer justice and strengthen services for victims of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking. In South Africa, People Opposing Women Abuse (POWA) is a women's rights organisation that provides services and engages in advocacy to promote women's rights and improve women's quality of life.<ref>((cite web|title=People Opposing Women Abuse website|url=http://www.powa.co.za/POWA/about-us/|access-date=13 November 2016|language=en))</ref>

==See also==
* [[Effects and aftermath of rape]]
* [[Laws regarding rape]]
* [[Rape investigation]]

==References==
((Reflist|30em))

==External links==
* [https://www.clerycenter.org/ Clery Centre for Security on Campus]
* [https://www.powa.co.za/POWA/ People Opposing Women Abuse - POWA]

[[Category:Abuse]]
[[Category:Rape]]
[[Category:Sex crimes]]
[[Category:Sexual abuse]]
[[Category:Sexual violence]]
[[Category:Social stigma]]

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