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((Short description|Organism that eats mostly or exclusively animal tissue))
((About|the general concept of a meat-eating animal|the mammal order|Carnivora|other uses))
((Redirect|Carnivorous|the Hawkwind album|Carnivorous (album)))
[[File:Carnivore-lion.jpg|thumb|[[Lion|Lions]] are [[wikt:obligate|obligate]] carnivores consuming only animal flesh for their nutritional requirements.]]

A '''carnivore''' ((IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑr|n|ɪ|v|ɔər)), or '''meat-eater''' ([[Latin]], ''caro'', genitive ''carnis'', meaning [[meat]] or "flesh" and ''vorare'' meaning "to devour"), is an [[animal]] or [[plant]] whose [[food]] and [[energy]] requirements derive from the [[Eating|consumption]] of animal tissues (mainly [[muscle]], [[adipose tissue|fat]] and other [[soft tissue]]s) whether through [[predation|hunting]] or [[scavenger|scavenging]].<ref name=Ullrey-N/><ref name=Ullrey-M-C/>

==Nomenclature==

===Mammal order===
The technical term for mammals in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]] is ''carnivoran'', and they are so-named because most member species in the group have a carnivorous diet, but the similarity of the name of the order and the name of the diet causes confusion.

Many but not all carnivorans are meat eaters; a few, such as the [[felidae|large and small cats]] ([[felidae]]) are ''obligate'' carnivores (see below). Other classes of carnivore are highly variable. The [[Ursidae|Ursid]]s, for example: While the Arctic [[polar bear]] eats meat almost exclusively (more than 90% of its diet is meat), almost all other [[bear]] species are [[omnivore|omnivorous]], and one species, the [[giant panda]], is nearly exclusively [[herbivore|herbivorous]].<ref name=WWF-pandas/>

Dietary carnivory is not a distinguishing trait of the [[order (biology)|order]]. Many mammals with highly carnivorous diets are ''not'' members of the order [[Carnivora]]. [[Cetacean]]s, for example, all eat other animals, but are paradoxically members of the almost exclusively [[herbivorous|plant-eating]] [[ungulate|hooved mammals]].

===Carnivorous diet===
Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements in nature are called ''[[hypercarnivore]]s'' or ''obligate carnivores'', whilst those which also consume non-animal food are called ''[[mesocarnivore]]s'', or ''facultative carnivores'', or ''[[omnivores]]'' (there are no clear distinctions).<ref name=Ullrey-M-C/> A carnivore at the top of the [[food chain]] (adults not preyed upon by other animals) is termed an [[apex predator]], regardless of whether it is an ''obligate'' or ''facultative'' carnivore. In captivity or domestic settings, obligate carnivores like cats and crocodiles can in principle get all their required nutrients from processed food made from plant and synthetic sources.<ref>((Cite news |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |last2=correspondent |first2=Hannah Devlin Science |date=2023-09-13 |title=Cats may get health benefits from vegan diet, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2023/sep/13/cats-may-get-health-benefits-from-vegan-diet-study-suggests |access-date=2024-04-06 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077))</ref><ref>((Cite web |date=2014-04-08 |title=Crocodiles in Zimbabwe fed vegetarian diet to make better handbags |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/10752968/Crocodiles-in-Zimbabwe-fed-vegetarian-diet-to-make-better-handbags.html |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=The Telegraph |language=en))</ref>

[[File:Venus_Flytrap_showing_trigger_hairs.jpg|thumb|Members of the plant kingdom can live on meat too, such as the [[Venus flytrap]], a [[carnivorous plant]].]]
Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing [[carnivorous plant]]s (predominantly insectivores) and several phyla containing [[carnivorous fungus|carnivorous fungi]] (preying mostly on microscopic [[invertebrate]]s, such as [[nematode]]s, [[amoebae]], and [[springtail]]s).

===Subcategories of carnivory===
Carnivores are sometimes characterized by their [[List of feeding behaviours#By food type|type of prey]]. For example, animals that eat mainly [[insect]]s and similar [[invertebrate]]s are called ''[[insectivore]]s'', while those that eat mainly [[fish]] are called ''[[piscivore]]s''.

Carnivores may alternatively be classified according to the percentage of meat in their diet. The diet of a [[hypercarnivore]] consists of more than 70% meat, that of a [[mesocarnivore]] 30–70%, and that of a [[hypocarnivore]] less than 30%, with the balance consisting of non-animal foods, such as [[fruit]]s, other plant material, or [[fungi]].

[[Omnivore]]s also consume both animal and non-animal food, and apart from their more general definition, there is no clearly defined ratio of plant vs. animal material that distinguishes a ''facultative carnivore'' from an ''omnivore''.<ref name=Ullrey-M-O/>

==Obligate carnivores==
[[File:Tigre d'Asie à robe blanche.jpg|thumb|The [[Bengal tiger]]'s large [[canine tooth|canines]] and strong jaws reveal its place as an [[apex predator]].]]
[[File:Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004.JPG|thumb|[[Lion]]s are voracious carnivores; they require more than 7 kilograms of meat daily. A major component of their diet is the meat of large [[mammal]]s, such as this [[African buffalo|buffalo]].]]

Obligate or "true" carnivores are those whose diet requires nutrients found only in animal flesh in the wild. While obligate carnivores might be able to [[ingestion|ingest]] small amounts of plant matter, they lack the necessary [[physiology]] required to fully [[digestion|digest]] it. Some obligate carnivorous mammals will ingest vegetation as an [[emetic]], a food that upsets their stomachs, to self-induce vomiting.<ref name=Armstrong-Gross-etal-2010/>

Obligate carnivores are diverse. The amphibian [[axolotl]] consumes mainly worms and larvae in its environment, but if necessary will consume algae. All [[Felidae|felids]], including feral [[domestic cat|domestic cats]], require a diet of primarily animal flesh and organs.<ref name=Velegr-Defr-1994/> Specifically, cats have high protein requirements and their metabolisms appear unable to synthesize essential nutrients such as [[retinol]], [[arginine]], [[taurine]], and [[arachidonic acid]]; thus, in nature, they must consume flesh to supply these nutrients.<ref name=Ullrey-2004-Pond-EAS/>

== Characteristics of carnivores ==
((Unreferenced section|date=December 2023))
Characteristics commonly associated with carnivores include strength, speed, and keen senses for hunting, as well as teeth and claws for capturing and tearing prey. However, some carnivores do not hunt and are [[scavenger]]s, lacking the physical characteristics to bring down prey; in addition, most hunting carnivores will scavenge when the opportunity arises. Carnivores have comparatively short digestive systems, as they are not required to break down the tough cellulose found in plants.

Many hunting animals have evolved eyes facing forward, enabling depth perception. This is almost universal among mammalian predators, while most reptile and amphibian predators have eyes facing sideways.

==Prehistory of carnivory==
((main|Predation#Evolutionary history|Evolutionary history of life))

''[[Predation]]'' (the eating of one living creature by another for nutrition) predates the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Indeed: It began with single-celled organisms, before [[multicellular organism|multicellular creatures]], and so carnivory predates the clear distinction between plants and animals ([[herbivore|herbivory]] / carnivory).

===Proterozoic origin===
The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the earliest fossil record is the poorest, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7&nbsp;[[Gya]] (billion years ago).<ref name=Bengtson-2002-10/>

The rise of [[eukaryotic]] cells at around 2.7&nbsp;Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2&nbsp;Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600&nbsp;Mya – 2&nbsp;Gya, probably around 1&nbsp;Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior,<ref name=Bengtson-2002-10/> and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species.<ref name=Bengtson-2002-10/>

===Devonian land-predators===
Among more familiar species, the first vertebrate carnivores were fish, and then amphibians that moved on to land. Early [[tetrapods]] were large amphibious [[piscivores]].
The first [[tetrapod]]s, or land-dwelling [[vertebrate]]s, were piscivorous [[amphibian]]s called [[Labyrinthodontia|''labyrinthodonts'']]. They gave rise to insectivorous vertebrates and, later, to predators of other tetrapods.<ref name=Sahney-Benton-Ferry-2010/>

Some scientists assert that ''[[Dimetrodon]]'' "was the first terrestrial vertebrate to develop the curved, serrated teeth that enable a predator to eat prey much larger than itself."<ref name=Foley-2014-02-07/> While amphibians continued to feed on fish and later insects, reptiles began exploring two new food types: tetrapods (carnivory) and then plants (herbivory). Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation; in contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials.<ref name=Sahney-Benton-Ferry-2010/>

===Mesozoic===
In the [[Mesozoic]], some [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]]s such as ''[[Tyrannosaurus|Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' are thought probably to have been obligate carnivores.

Though the theropods were the larger carnivores, several carnivorous mammal groups were already present. Most notable are the [[Gobiconodontidae|gobiconodontids]], the [[Triconodontidae|triconodontid]] ''[[Jugulator (mammal)|Jugulator]]'', the [[Deltatheroida|deltatheroidans]] and ''[[Cimolestes]]''. Many of these, such as ''[[Repenomamus]]'', ''Jugulator'' and ''Cimolestes'', were among the largest mammals in their faunal assemblages, capable of attacking dinosaurs.<ref name=Zofia-Cifelli-Luo-2004/><ref name=Fox-2015/><ref name=Cifelli-Madsen-1998/>

===Cenozoic===
In the early-to-mid-Cenozoic, the dominant predator forms were mammals: [[Hyaenodonta|hyaenodonts]], [[Oxyaenidae|oxyaenids]], [[entelodont]]s, [[ptolemaiida]]ns, [[Arctocyonidae|arctocyonids]] and [[mesonychia]]ns, representing a great diversity of [[eutheria]]n carnivores in the northern continents and [[Africa]]. In [[South America]], [[Sparassodonta|sparassodonts]] were dominant, while [[Australia]] saw the presence of several [[marsupial]] predators, such as the [[Dasyuromorphia|dasyuromorphs]] and [[Thylacoleonidae|thylacoleonids]]. From the [[Miocene]] to the present, the dominant carnivorous mammals have been [[Carnivoramorpha|carnivoramorphs]].

Most carnivorous mammals, from [[dog]]s to ''[[deltatheridium]]s'', share several dental adaptations, such as [[carnassial]]iforme teeth, long [[canine tooth|canine]]s and even similar tooth replacement patterns.<ref name=deMuizon-LangeBadré-1997/> Most aberrant are [[Thylacoleonidae|thylacoleonids]], with a diprodontan dentition completely unlike that of any other mammal; and [[eutriconodonts]] like gobiconodontids and ''Jugulator'', with a three-cusp anatomy which nevertheless functioned similarly to carnassials.<ref name=Zofia-Cifelli-Luo-2004/><ref name=quecome-2017-02-02/>

==See also==
* [[Mesocarnivore]]

==References==
((reflist|25em|refs=

<ref name=Armstrong-Gross-etal-2010>
((cite book
 |last1=Armstrong |first1=P. Jane
 |last2=Gross |first2=Kathy L.
 |last3=Becvarova |first3=Iveta
 |last4=Debraekeleer |first4=Jacques
 |year=2010
 |section=Introduction to Feeding Normal Cats
 |title=Small Animal Clinical Nutrition
 |pages=371–372
 |quote= Because grass is not digested within the cat’s gastrointestinal (GI) tract, it acts as a local irritant and sometimes stimulates vomiting. Thus, grass eating may serve as a purgative to eliminate hair or other indigestible material.
 |section-url=http://s3.amazonaws.com/mmi_sacn5/2019/SACN5_19.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512201009/http://s3.amazonaws.com/mmi_sacn5/2019/SACN5_19.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-12 |url-status=live
 |access-date=17 January 2022
))
</ref>

<ref name=Bengtson-2002-10>
((cite journal
 |author=Bengtson, Stefan
 |date=October 2002
 |title=Origins and early evolution of predation
 |journal=The Paleontological Society Papers
 |volume=8 |pages=289–318
 |issn=1089-3326
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021552/Bengtson2002predation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910205539/http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021552/Bengtson2002predation.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-10 |url-status=live
 |doi = 10.1017/S1089332600001133
))
</ref>

<ref name=Sahney-Benton-Ferry-2010>
((cite journal
 |author1=Sahney, S.
 |author2=Benton, M.J.
 |author3=Falcon-Lang, H.J.
 |year=2010
 |title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica
 |journal=Geology
 |volume = 38 |issue=12 |pages = 1079–1082
 |doi=10.1130/G31182.1 |bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S
))
</ref>

<ref name=Cifelli-Madsen-1998>
((cite journal
 |last1=Cifelli |first1=Richard L.
 |last2=Madsen |first2=Scott K.
 |year=1998
 |title=Triconodont mammals from the medial Cretaceous of Utah
 |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=403–411
 |doi=10.1080/02724634.1998.10011068
|bibcode=1998JVPal..18..403C
 ))
</ref>

<ref name=deMuizon-LangeBadré-1997>
((cite journal
 |first1=Christian |last1=de&nbsp;Muizon
 |first2=Brigitte |last2=Lange-Badré
 |year=1997
 |title=Carnivorous dental adaptations in tribosphenic mammals and phylogenetic reconstruction
 |journal=[[Lethaia]]
 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=353–366
 |doi=10.1111/j.1502-3931.1997.tb00481.x
|bibcode=1997Letha..30..353D
 ))
</ref>

<ref name=Foley-2014-02-07>
((cite news
 |author=Foley, James A.
 |date=7 February 2014
 |title= Carnivorous, pre-dinosaur predator was first to evolve steak knife-like teeth
 |website=Nature World News
 |url=http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/5928/20140207/carnivorous-pre-dinosaur-predator-first-evolve-steak-knife-teeth.htm
 |access-date=3 May 2014
))
</ref>

<ref name=Fox-2015>
((cite journal
 |first=Richard C. |last=Fox
 |year=2015
 |title=A revision of the late Cretaceous–Paleocene eutherian mammal ''Cimolestes'' ((small|(Marsh, 1889)))
 |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
 |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=1137–1149
 |doi=10.1139/cjes-2015-0113 |bibcode=2015CaJES..52.1137F
))
</ref>

<ref name=quecome-2017-02-02>
((cite web
 |title=Animales carnivoros. Ejemplos, alimentacion y curiosidades
 |date=2017-02-02
 |website=Que Come
 |publisher=Eating Encyclopedia
 |url=https://quecome.net/animales-carnivoros/
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224062436/https://quecome.net/animales-carnivoros/
 |archive-date=2019-02-24
 |lang=es
))
</ref>

<ref name=Ullrey-2004-Pond-EAS>
((cite book
 |author=Ullrey, D.E.
 |year=2004
 |series=Mammals
 |section=Carnivores
 |editor=Pond, Wilson
 |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science
 |publisher=CRC Press
 |isbn=978-0-8247-5496-9
 |page=591
 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA591
)) <br/>
((cite book
 |author=Ullrey, D.E.
 |year=2004
 |section=Nutrient requirements: Carnivores
 |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science
 |page=670
 |publisher=CRC Press
 |isbn=9780824754969
 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA670
))
</ref>

<ref name=Ullrey-N>((cite book |section=Nutrient |first=Duane E. |last=Ullrey |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science))</ref>

<ref name=Ullrey-M-C>((cite book |series=Mammals |section=Carnivores |first=Duane E. |last=Ullrey |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science))</ref>

<ref name=Ullrey-M-O>((cite book |series=Mammals |section=Omnivores |first=Duane E. |last=Ullrey |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Science))</ref>

<ref name=Velegr-Defr-1994>
((cite journal
 |last=Velegrand-Defretin |first=Veronique
 |year=1994
 |title=Differences between cats and dogs: A nutritional view
 |journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=15–24
 |doi=10.1079/pns19940004 |doi-access=free |pmid=8029223
))
</ref>

<ref name=WWF-pandas>
((cite web
 |title=What do pandas eat?
 |website=panda.org
 |publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]]
 |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/what_do_pandas_they_eat/
 |access-date=6 December 2021
))
</ref>

<ref name=Zofia-Cifelli-Luo-2004>
((cite book
 |first1=Zofia |last1=Kielan-Jaworowska
 |first2=Richard L. |last2=Cifelli
 |first3=Zhe-Xi |last3=Luo
 |year=2004
 |chapter=Chapter&nbsp;12: Metatherians
 |title=Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: Origins, evolution, and structure
 |place=New York, NY
 |publisher=Columbia University Press
 |isbn=0-231-11918-6
 |pages=425–262
))
</ref>

)) <!-- end "refs=" -->

==Further reading==
* ((cite book |editor1=Glen, Alistair |editor2=Dickman, Christopher |name-list-style=amp |year=2014 |title=Carnivores of Australia |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |place=Melbourne, AU |isbn=978-0-643-10310-8))

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[[Category:Biological interactions]]
[[Category:Carnivory| ]]
[[Category:Animals by eating behaviors]]
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Meat|*]]

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