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((Short description|System of conducting relations between states))
((Refimprove|date=September 2020))

((Chinese
|title = Emperor at home, king abroad
|c = 外王内帝
|l=externally [[Chinese_nobility#Emperor|''wáng'']], internally [[Chinese_nobility#Emperor|''dì'']]
|p = wài wáng nèi dì
|qn = Ngoại Vương Nội Đế
|chuhan = 外王內帝
|hangul = 외왕내제
|hanja = 外王內帝
|kanji = 外王内帝
|hiragana = がいおうないてい
))
'''Emperor at home, king abroad''' was a system of conducting relations between states within the [[East Asian cultural sphere|Chinese cultural sphere]]. Rulers of lesser regimes would adopt the title of ''[[emperor]]'' (皇帝; or other equivalents) and/or other imperial titles domestically, and adopt the title of ''[[king]]'' (王; or other equivalents) when dealing with the dominant Chinese regime. Instead of using the styles ''[[Imperial Majesty (style)|Imperial Majesty]]'' and ''[[Majesty]]'' (陛下), rulers of lesser realms were styled as ''[[Highness]]'' (殿下).((citation needed|date=November 2019)) This system was applicable to Japan, Korea and Vietnam, as well as less powerful Chinese states, among others.

As China was a hegemonic power in East Asia for a large part of history, surrounding states were compelled to [[Tributary system of China|pay tribute]] to [[Emperor of China|Chinese emperors]] in exchange for peace and political legitimacy. In this system, lesser regimes accepted the [[suzerainty]] of the dominant Chinese power and acknowledged the Chinese emperor as their nominal overlord. Since Chinese emperors claimed to be the [[Son of Heaven]] and held supremacy over [[Tianxia|all under Heaven]], rulers of lesser regimes were to use titles subordinate to ''emperor''. The same doctrine also maintained that there could only be one emperor at any given time.

== Origin ==

When the Qin dynasty fell, general [[Zhao Tuo]] conquered the commanderies of Xiang and Guilin and proclaimed himself "Martial King of [[Nanyue]]" (((zh|c=南越武王|p=Nányuè Wǔ wáng|labels=no))) and in 196 BCE he was recognized "King of Nanyue" (((zh|c=南越王|p=Nányuè wáng|labels=no))) after [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]] became emperor and founded the [[Han dynasty]]. After Liu Bang's death, his officials petitioned his widow [[Empress Lü]] to forbid trade in iron between Nanyue and Han; upon hearing the news, Zhao proclaimed himself "Martial Emperor of Nanyue" (((zh|c=南越武帝|p=Nányuè wǔ dì||labels=no))), on par with the [[List of emperors of the Han dynasty|Han emperors]].<ref name = "NYLZ">[[Sima Qian]], ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7113 "Vol. 113: Account of Nanyue"]</ref><ref>Sima Qian (author), Burton Watson (translator). (1961). ''Records Of The Grand Historian Of China'', '''Vol. II'''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 240</ref> 

Zhao's troops raided the neighboring [[Changsha Kingdom]], which was part of the Han Empire, before returning to Nanyue. In 181 BCE, Empress Lü dispatched general Zhou Zao to lead troops against Nanyue. However, Zhou's troops fell ill because of the heat and dampness and thus failed to cross the mountains to enter Nanyue; later, they were recalled in 180 BCE after Empress Lü's death. Zhao took the opportunity to menace and bribe the leaders of the [[Minyue]], the Western [[Ouyue]], and the [[Luoyue]] into submission.((efn|The ''Records of the Outer Territory of Jiao Region'' (交州外域記) and ''Records of the Taikang Era of the Jin'' (晉太康記) (both quoted in ''[[Commentary on the Water Classic]]'' (水經注)) and ''[[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư]] (Complete Historical Annals of [[Đại Việt]])'' (大越史記全書) also mentioned Zhao's military conquest of [[Âu Lạc]].<ref>''Shuijing zhu'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%B6%93%E6%B3%A8/37#%E6%B3%BF%E6%B0%B4 "Vol. 37, Section Yin river"]. For an English translation see Chang, Yufen (2022). "Academic Dependency Theory and the Politics of Agency in Area Studies: The Case of Anglophone Vietnamese Studies from the 1960s to the 2010s". ''Journal of Historical Sociology''. '''35 (1)''': p. 49 of pp. 37–54.</ref><ref>[[Ngô Sĩ Liên]] et al. ''ĐVSKTT'' [https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B6%8A%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%A4%96%E7%B4%80%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B8%80#%E8%9C%80%E7%B4%80 "Peripheral Records, Vol. 1, Records of Thục, King An Dương"]</ref>)) Zhao then stopped sending envoys to the Han court.<ref name = "NYLZ"/><ref>Sima Qian (author), Watson, Burton (translator) (1961), p. 241</ref>

In response, [[Emperor Wen of Han]] sent [[Lu Jia (Western Han)|Lu Jia]] to reprimand Zhao. Frightened, Zhao wrote a letter of apology, humbled himself as a feudal subject of the Han Emperor, promised to [[tributary system|offer tributes]], and publicly announced in Nanyue that he would relinquish imperial title and practices. However, Zhao still secretly designated himself as "Emperor" (((zh|c=帝|p=dì|labels=no))) inside Nanyue and only used titles appropriate for a tributary feudal lord like "king" (((zh|c=王|p=wáng|labels=no))) when sending envoys to the [[Son of Heaven]].<ref name = "NYLZ"/><ref>Sima Qian (author), Watson, Burton (translator) (1961), p. 241-242</ref>

== Korea ==
((See also|Korean imperial titles))

The rulers of [[Balhae]] used imperial titles, such as ''Seongwang'' (((Korean|성왕|聖王|labels=no|lit="Holy King"))) and ''Hwangsang'' (((Korean|황상|皇上|labels=no|lit="Emperor"))), and had independent [[Korean era name|era names]].<ref>((cite web |title=발해(渤海) |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0021626 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |accessdate=19 February 2019))</ref><ref>((cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Jinwung |title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict |date=2012 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253000248 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2EVi-MpnUsC&pg=PA88 |accessdate=19 February 2019 |language=en))</ref>

In 933, [[Taejo of Goryeo|King Taejo of Goryeo]] was conferred the title of ''King of Goryeo'' (高麗國王) by the [[Li Siyuan|Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang]]. Prior to its capitulation to the [[Yuan dynasty]], imperial designations and terminology were widely used by the [[Goryeo|Goryeo dynasty]] domestically. Its rulers claimed to be the ''[[Son of Heaven]]'', as did [[Emperor of China|Chinese emperors]]. [[Gyeongsun of Silla|King Gyeongsun of Silla]] addressed King Taejo of Goryeo as the ''Son of Heaven'' when he surrendered. Even though the [[Song dynasty]], the [[Liao dynasty]] and the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] were well-informed of Goryeo's use of imperial titles, all three [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynasties]] tolerated such practice.

The Goryeo dynasty later became a [[Goryeo under Mongol rule|semi-autonomous region]] of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its domestic imperial system. Its rulers bore the title ''king'' and were prohibited from having [[temple name]]s which were reserved specifically for the Yuan emperors. In 1356, [[Gongmin of Goryeo|King Gongmin of Goryeo]] declared independence from the Yuan dynasty.<ref>((cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=David M. |title=Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674036086 |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDjWpqU55eMC&pg=PA128 |accessdate=2 November 2019 |language=en))</ref>

In 1392, [[Taejo of Joseon|King Taejo of Joseon]] overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded the [[Joseon|Joseon dynasty]]. He was bestowed the title ''King of Joseon'' (朝鮮國王) by the [[Hongwu Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]]. Both domestically and externally, Joseon monarchs held the title of ''king'', unlike the domestic claim of imperial titles before Goryeo's submission to the Yuan dynasty.<ref>((citation |last1=Em |first1=Henry H. |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea |date=2013 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-5372-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C |page=35))</ref>

== Vietnam ==

In 544, [[Lý Nam Đế|Lý Bôn]] established the [[Early Lý dynasty]] and proclaimed himself the ''Emperor of Nam Việt'' (南越帝).

In 968, [[Đinh Bộ Lĩnh]] founded the [[Đinh dynasty]] and declared himself as ''emperor'', abolishing the old title of ''[[Tĩnh Hải quân|Jinghaijun]] [[Jiedushi]]'' (靜海軍節度使), a title of Chinese regional military commander. The [[Emperor Taizu of Song]] later bestowed the title ''King of Jiaozhi Prefecture'' to Đinh Bộ Lĩnh.<ref>((cite book|last=Taylor|first=Keith Weller|year=1983|title=The Birth of the Vietnam|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=9780520074170))</ref>((rp|285, 287))

In 986, [[Lê Hoàn]] was bestowed the title of ''Jinghaijun Jiedushi'' when the emissary of the Song dynasty visited. In 988, Lê Hoàn was promoted to ''Proxy [[Grand Commandant]]'' (檢校太尉); in 993 to ''Prince of Jiaozhi Commandery'' (交趾郡王); and finally in 997 his title was promoted to the ''King of Nanping'' (南平王).<ref>''[[Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư|Annals of Great Yue]]'' (大越史記全書) </ref><ref>''Jiaozhi Book'' of ''[[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|History of Song]]'', (宋史·交趾傳) </ref>

In 1010, [[Lý Thái Tổ]] established the [[Lý dynasty]] and was granted the title ''Prince of Jiaozhi'' by the [[Emperor Zhenzong|Emperor Zhenzong of Song]]. In 1174, [[Lý Anh Tông]] was bestowed the title ''King of Annan'' (安南國王); [[Annan (Tang protectorate)|"Annan" or "An Nam"]], meaning "the Pacified South", was the name of Vietnam during [[Chinese domination of Vietnam|Chinese rule]].<ref>((Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0AlDwAAQBAJ&dq=Vietnam+king+vuong+China&pg=PA16 |title = Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality|isbn = 9781317398202|last1 = Hai|first1 = Do Thanh|date = December 2016))</ref><ref>((Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrirAgAAQBAJ&dq=Vietnam+king+vuong+China&pg=PA44 |title = China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia|isbn = 9780231141895|last1 = Kang|first1 = David C.|date = 2010-01-22))</ref><ref>((Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LgGhCgAAQBAJ&dq=vietnam+vuong+king+china&pg=PA346 |title = Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours|isbn = 9789814620536|last1 = Mair|first1 = Victor H.|last2 = Kelley|first2 = Liam|author-link2= Liam Kelley (historian)|date = 2015-08-06))</ref> Domestically, rulers of the Lý dynasty maintained the use of the title ''emperor''.

Upon proclaiming the [[Lê dynasty|Later Lê dynasty]], [[Lê Lợi|Lê Thái Tổ]] claimed kingship with the title ''Đại Vương'' (大王).((citation needed|date=May 2022)) It was not until the reign of [[Lê Thánh Tông]] did Vietnamese rulers reclaimed imperial titles. The system continued to be used until the end of the dynasty itself, as all rulers claimed imperial status domestically and reverted to royal rank when dealing with China.

The [[Gia Long|Gia Long Emperor]] of the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] was conferred the title ''King of Việt Nam'' (越南國王) by the [[Jiaqing Emperor]] of the [[Qing dynasty]]. While the Nguyễn dynasty accepted Chinese suzerainty and adopted the title of ''king'' when dealing with the Qing dynasty, it entered into foreign relations with other states as ''Emperor of Đại Việt Nam'' (大越南皇帝) and later as ''Emperor of Đại Nam'' (大南皇帝).((citation needed|date=May 2020)) Domestically, Nguyễn monarchs also used the title ''emperor'' and referred to its realm as the "southern dynasty" (in relation to the Qing dynasty, the "northern dynasty"), implying an equal status with China.

== Japan ==
[[File:明皇帝勅諭 (複製) 日本国王部分抜粋.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] was triggered to [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|invade Korea]] for the second time, after the [[Wanli Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]] referred to him as the ''King of Japan''.]]

[[Emperor of China|Chinese emperors]] originally referred to Japanese rulers as the ''King of [[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]'' (倭王), while they were called ''kimi'' or ''ōkimi'' in Japan. Some of the rulers, notably the [[five kings of Wa]], accepted Chinese suzerainty.

During the [[Sui dynasty]], the Japanese diplomat [[Ono no Imoko]] delivered a letter by [[Prince Shōtoku]] to the [[Emperor Yang of Sui]] which claimed the [[Empress Suiko]] as "the Son of Heaven where the sun rises", implying an equal status between the Japanese and Chinese monarchs. The Emperor Yang of Sui was angered by such a claim. Since then, the [[Emperor of Japan]] has started to adopt the imperial title of '''((nihongo|[[Tennō]]|天皇||"Heavenly Emperor"))''' both domestically and externally, and the title ''king'' (國王) was sometimes used for trade with China by [[shogun]]s, who held ''de facto'' power in Japan. China did not officially allow Japanese emperors to use the title ''tennō'', although it did little to compel the Japanese rulers into reverting to lesser titles.<ref>((cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kO0tUpCViA8C&dq=%22son+of+heaven%22&pg=PA300|title=Rethinking Japan: Social Sciences, Ideology and Thought|editor-first=Adriana| editor-last=Boscaro| editor2-first=Franco | editor2-last=Gatti| editor3-first=Massimo | editor3-last=Raveri|publisher=Japan Library Limited|year=2003|isbn=978-0-904404-79-1|page=300|volume=II))</ref>

During the [[Tang dynasty]], Japanese rulers were conferred the title ''King of Japan'' (日本國王).<ref>((cite book |title=唐丞相曲江張先生文集-敕日本國王書))</ref> In 894, Japan stopped sending [[Japanese missions to Tang China|envoys to the Tang dynasty]].

During the [[Yuan dynasty]], the [[Kublai Khan|Emperor Shizu of Yuan]] demanded the submission of the ''King of Japan'', referring to the Japanese emperor. Japan rejected this demand, which resulted in the [[Mongol invasions of Japan|Yuan invasions of Japan]].

During the [[Nanboku-chō period]] of Japan, [[Prince Kaneyoshi]] refused to accept the title of ''king'' granted by China, and killed seven Chinese ambassadors in retaliation.

The shogun [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] accepted the title ''King of Japan'' bestowed by the [[Yongle Emperor]] due to his desire to establish trade relations with the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>((Cite news |last=Correspondent |first=Walter SimJapan |date=2019-04-30 |title=Emperor Akihito steps down, marking the end of three-decade Heisei era |language=en |work=The Straits Times |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/japan-emperor-to-step-down-today-in-first-abdication-for-two-centuries |access-date=2023-09-08 |issn=0585-3923))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Shillony |first=Ben-Ami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1 |title=The Emperors of Modern Japan |date=2008 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-16822-0 |language=en))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Seagrave |first=Sterling |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Se8UzqKr2x8C&pg=PA23 |title=The Yamato Dynasty: The Secret History of Japan's Imperial Family |last2=Seagrave |first2=Peggy |date=2001-08-14 |publisher=Crown |isbn=978-0-7679-0497-1 |language=en))</ref>

During the rule of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] changed the title of ''king'' to ''[[taikun]]'' (大君), as a sign of respect to the Japanese emperor. Thereafter, [[Tokugawa Ienobu]] switched the title back to ''king'', only to be changed once again to ''taikun'' by [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]].

== See also ==
* [[Sinosphere]]
* [[Foreign relations of imperial China]]
* [[Hua–Yi distinction]]
* [[King in Prussia]]
* [[List of tributary states of China]]
* [[Little China (ideology)]]
*[[Mandala (political model)]]
* ''[[Pax Sinica]]''
* [[Sinicization]]
* [[Sinocentrism]]
* [[Tributary system of China]]
* [[Problem of two emperors]]
* [[Universal monarchy]]
* [[King of the Romans]]
* [[Basileus]]

== Notes ==
((notelist))

== References ==
((reflist))

[[Category:History of East Asia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Imperial China]]
[[Category:China–Japan relations]]
[[Category:History of China–Korea relations]]
[[Category:China–Vietnam relations]]

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