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Galleys were widely used in the north and were the most numerous warships used by Mediterranean powers with interests in the north, especially the French and Iberian kingdoms.[4]

The late 15th century saw the development of the ocean-going ships. These warships were equipped with multiple masts and rigging that permitted tacking into the wind, and were heavily armed with cannons, first mounted on open decks and later through gunports in the stern and eventually along the broadsides. These proved to be formidable obstacles for attacking galleys.

Despite the steady advances in sailing ship technology in the early modern period, the 16th century saw the last great age of the war galley.

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Non-galley

The English of the 13th century made extensive use of "galleys" for convoy duty around the British Isles, enforcing customs regulations and relieving besieged castles. These were called balingers or barges and were different from the southern galleys as they were usually smaller and built according to the clinker method, with overlapping hull planks that supported the structure of the vessel. There were occasional examples of English galleys as large as 42 m (138 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) wide.[13]

The Swedish galley fleet was the largest (26 vessels by 1560), and was used primarily as an auxiliary branch of the army. These ships were smaller than in the Mediterranean and rather than convicts or slaves, the oars were handled by army soldiers.[14]

In the 15th century, before the onset of the early modern period with the early precursors of centralized states, there were five localized, ongoing conflicts in the Mediterranean. In the west, around the Iberian Peninsula and southern France, the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile fought the Iberian Muslim outpost of Granada as well as their Christian rivals in France and Portugal. The various commercially oriented Italian city-states (like Venice, Genoa and Florence) vied with each other for control of the lucrative trade in both luxuries and bulk wares. Venice, the most powerful of the city-states and maritime republics, fought sporadically against the expanding Ottoman Empire as it displaced the last vestiges of the Byzantines, the heir of the eastern Roman empire. Throughout the Mediterranean, the so-called sea ghazis based in North Africa, and the Knights of Saint John based on the island of Rhodes, fought a low-scale raiding and pirate war that had its ultimate origins in the First Crusade of the late 11th century. Both saw themselves as soldiers of their respective faiths, and engaged in wholesale piratical activities and slave raids, sometimes even attacking adherents of their own religion.[25] As these local conflicts intensified and expanded, the outcome was the crushing of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottomans, which also closed off the Black Sea to Christian powers, and denied the Genoese Republic of its territories in that region. The Ottomans also captured Morea (modern-day Greece) and largely ousted Venice from the Aegean Sea and conquered Egypt and the Levant, with its vital ports. The small kingdom of Portugal meanwhile, began moving on the Indian Ocean with its trade with South and East Asia, which brought them into conflict with the Ottomans in the Red Sea and around the Arabian Peninsula.[26]

The 16th century became the last great age of the war galley in the Mediterranean. The late 15th century saw the development of the man-of-war, the ocean-going trader and warship, beginning with the carrack, which evolved into the galleon and then into the square rigger. These warships carried advanced rigging and numerous sails that permitted tacking into the wind, and they were heavily armed with cannons. In the Mediterranean, the decline of the galley began in the early 17th century with the influx of Dutch pirates in summer, and were no answer in winter, when rough weather kept galleys on shore.[29] However, before sailing warships began carrying their primary armament along their sides (broadsides), galleys were fitted with heavy artillery pieces in the bows. This gave galleys several advantages: they could fire from a low position close to waterline; their hulls had small target areas; and they could move largely independent of adverse currents and weather conditions, outmaneuvering early types of sailing vessels in the right conditions. Though sailing ships would eventually become the dominant warships, the introduction of naval artillery actually strengthened the position of the galley's role as a warship, particularly in the Mediterranean. With the advent of heavy, long-range guns of wrought iron or bronze that could smash holes even in the heaviest of ship hulls, the galley became a highly effective gun platform. Placing one or several heavy cannon in the bows of a galley, allowed it to fire straight ahead on a very low trajectory, threatening to hole sailing ships near the waterline. This resulted in an expansion of galley navies all over Europe c. 1520-80, with a climax around 1571 with the battle of Lepanto, one of the largest naval battles ever fought.[30]

Baltic

Baltic 16th century galleys were smaller than their Mediterranean counterparts. While full-sized battle galleys of 25-30 banks of oars and even some galeasses were built, they were rare and too large to operate successfully in the Baltic.[33] Sweden, one of the expansionist powers of the Baltic in the 16th century, built up one of the largest galley fleets in Europe in the 1540s. The Swedish galleys were used in coast areas and rivers inthe east against the small Russian states and in the south against Baltic Germans and Poland. Small gun-galleys were also built for internal defense on lakes Vänern and Vättern against the threat of peasant insurrections.[34] The Swedish galley fleet was rowed and fought by soldiers in the permanent, centralized army of Gustav I, something which was quite unique at the time. As the fourth largest permanent galley fleet in the world in the latter half of the 16th century, it was also rather unique in being rowed by free men rather than convicts or slaves.[35]

In the 18th century, galleys experienced a revival in the Baltic Sea due to the particular geographic conditions of the region. The extensive archipelago chain that extends from the eastern coast of central Sweden near the capital of Stockholm, via the Åland Islands and along the coast of the Gulf of Finland was ideally suited for amphibious warfare. At the other end of this chain lies Saint Petersburg, then the capital of the ascending new great power of Russia and its primary naval base in the Baltic. The thousands of rocky islets, islands with cramped inlets, shallows and sandbanks made it difficult for high sea fleets to enter these areas, which meant that shallow-draft galleys and other types of oared vessels had to provide naval support.[36]

Lead

A French galley and Dutch men-of-war off a port by Abraham Willaerts, 17th century

Origins

Military history

As early as 1304 the type of ship required by the Danish defense organization changed from galleys??? to cogs, a flat-bottomed sailing ship.[46]

The modern "galley"

With the steady decline of the Byzantine Empire in the eastern Mediterranean, the commercially-oriented Italian city-states rose as the new major Christian naval power in the Mediterranean.

During the 14th century, galleys began to be equipped with cannons of various sizes, mostly smaller ones at first, but also larger bombardas on vessels belonging to Alfonso V of Aragon.[55] The War of Chioggia (1378-80) between Venice and Genoa was the first conflict with large scale use of gunpowder weapons on ships.[56]

Early nation-states/Christian-Ottoman clash/Zenith of the galley fleets

Naval warfare in the Mediterranean was in the 16th century still closely tied to land warfare and worked in a symbiosis with seaside fortresses and strategically vital ports.[57]

Baltic revival

[63]

The Swedish navy still retained 27 galleys in 1809, and the last Swedish-built galley remained on the ship rolls until 1835, before it was retired, 86 years after it was built.

Trade

Around 700 BC, Phoenicians became the first to engage in seaborne trade west of the great islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, particularly silver and tin from Spain, but even good from as far north as England through middlemen. [65]

Merchant galleys were used more often on shorter routes and for coastal trade. [66]

The “beamier” merchant galleys were likely based on earlier military horse transports. [67]

They were so safe that merchandise was often not insured (Mallet). These ships increased in size during this period, and were the template from which the galleass developed.

Design

Building an efficient galley posed technical problems. The faster a ship travels, the more energy it uses. Through a process of trial and error, the unireme or monoreme — a galley with one row of oars on each side — reached the peak of its development in the penteconter, about 38 m long, with 25 oarsmen on each side. It could reach 9 knots (18 km/h), only a knot or so slower than modern rowed racing-boats.

Antiquity

Further information: Hellenistic-era warships

Early Greek vessels had few navigational tools. Most ancient and medieval shipping remained in sight of the coast for ease of navigation, safety, trading opportunities, and coastal currents and winds that could be used to work against and around prevailing winds. It was more important for galleys than sailing ships to remain near the coast because they needed more frequent re-supply of fresh water for their large, sweating, crews and were more vulnerable to storms. Unlike ships primarily dependent on sails, they could use small bays and beaches as harbors, travel up rivers, operate in water only a meter or so deep, and be dragged overland to be launched on lakes, or other branches of the sea. This made them suitable for launching attacks on land. In antiquity a famous portage was the diolkos of Corinth. In 429 BC (Thucydides 2.56.2), and probably earlier (Herodotus 6.48.2, 7.21.2, 7.97), galleys were adapted to carry horses to provide cavalry support to troops also landed by galleys.

The compass did not come into use for navigation until the 13th century AD, and sextants, octants, accurate marine chronometers, and the mathematics required to determine longitude and latitude were developed much later. Ancient sailors navigated by the sun and the prevailing wind[citation needed]. By the first millennium BC they had started using the stars to navigate at night. By 500 BC they had the sounding lead (Herodotus 2.5).

Besides Athlit bronze rams, [103] the only other parts of ancient galleys to survive are parts of two Punic biremes off western Sicily (see Basch & Frost). These Punic galleys are estimated to have been 35 m long, 4.80 m wide, with a displacement of 120 tonnes. These biremes had evidence of an easily breakable pointed ram, more like the Assyrian image than the Athlit ram. This type of ram may have been designed to break off to prevent that the hull was breached.

Galleys were hauled out of the water whenever possible to keep them dry, light and fast and free from worm, rot and seaweed. Galleys were usually kept in ship sheds during the winter. The archaeological remains of these have left scholars with valuable clues to the dimensions of the ships themselves.[104]

According to the Greek historian Herodotos, the first ramming action occurred in 535 BC when 60 Phocaean penteconters fought 120 Etruscan and Carthaginian ships. On this occasion it was described as an innovation that allowed Phocaeans to defeat a larger force.[105]

The first Greek galleys appeared around the second half of the 2nd millenium BC. In the epic poem, the Iliad, set in the 12th century BC, galleys with a single row of oarsmen were used primarily to transport soldiers to and from various land battles.[106] The first recorded naval battle, the battle of the Delta between Egyptian and the enigmatic Sea Peoples, occurred as early as 1175 BC, but was distinguished by being fought against an anchored fleet close to shore with land-based archer support. It is not known whether the ships that were used were in any way distinct from trade vessels.

The compass did not come into use for navigation until the 13th century AD, and sextants, octants, accurate marine chronometers, and the mathematics required to determine longitude and latitude were developed much later. Ancient sailors navigated by the sun and the prevailing wind[citation needed]. By the first millennium BC they had started using the stars to navigate at night. By 500 BC they had the sounding lead (Herodotus 2.5).

Galleys were hauled out of the water whenever possible to keep them dry, light and fast and free from worm, rot and seaweed. Galleys were usually overwintered in ship sheds which leave distinctive archeological remains.[107] There is evidence that the hulls of the Punic wrecks were sheathed in lead.

The attack on the city of Troy, THE MAIN EVENT of the Iliad was made by what Casson and other authors have described as "sea rovers".[109]

Sailing in open water with no sight of land was exceptional in antiquity, with ships skirting the coast as much as possible. At night, galleys were pulled up on land and the crew normally ate and slept ashore before setting out again to sea the next day.[110]

Friezes found on the island of Thera shows early-type galleys in procession that have been described as part of a "navy" of the Minoans, "the first great sea power of the Mediterranean", according to Casson.[111]

The Greek kingdoms and city-states established colonies over much of the Mediterranean and Black Seas in the period 750-550 BC in fierce competition with the Phoenicians.[112] The two groups vied over trading rights and power and each managed to carve out areas of control in the Mediterranean basin itself. Phoenicians, however, managed to control the sea-borne trade with continental Europe and the Baltic. Despite loosing three major battles against Greek forces, the Straits of Gibraltar remained closed to Greek trade as a Phoenician monopoly.[113]

Slave rowers were too expensive as they had to be permanently maintained and trained. They were only used in emergencies occasionally and then were often rewarded with freedom after participating in a battle. Freeing slaves in this manner entailed a considerable economic investment which far outweighed the benefits of forced oarsmen compared with free rowers.[114]

After the brief and dramatic career of Alexander the Great, his massive empire fell apart. Three of its successor-states, Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid empire, became the major Mediterranean naval powers in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. The Seleucids and Ptolemies became involved in a particularly intense conflict that according to historian Lionel Casson "touched off the greatest naval arms race in ancient history".[115] The fierce competition between the two lead to a successive increase in galley size from sixes to sixteens, and all the way up to massive thirties, with all actually seeing use in battle (though the largest ships were quite rare).[116]

Mecedonia and the Ptolemies fought each other to a standstill during the 3rd century BC in part with these "super galleys". By the end of the conflict, however, they had become largely outdated and when the Romans conquered Macedonia in 168 BC, they found a huge sixteen that had stood unused for over 70 years. [117]

In the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage, the Carthaginian navy was initially the strongest, with better ships and seasoned crews facing a land-based war machine. However, Roman navy that was built up to destroy Carthage developed what has latter be called the corvus (Latin: "raven"), first used at Mylae in 260 BC. It was in essence only a gangplank with a spike at the bottom that could be dropped on an enemy deck to hold it fast. Once the corvus was lowered, ship-borne infantry would rush across to deal with the enemy crews in hand-to-hand combat. This simple device allowed the Romans to take advantage of their superior army in naval combat.[118]

Middle Ages

Medieval galleys like this pioneered the use of naval guns, pointing forward as a supplement to the above-waterline beak designed to break the enemies outrigger. Only in the 16th century were ships called galleys developed with many men to each oar.[124]

Galley designs were intended solely for close action with hand-held weapons and projectile weapons like bows and crossbows. In the 13th century the Iberian kingdom of Aragon built several fleet of galleys with high castles, manned with Catalan crossbowman, and regularly defeated numerically superior Angevin forces.[125]

Early modern

The following is based on Glete (1993), p. 81:

Modern era

As galleys began to lose their usefulness in northern waters, rivalry and a conscious distinction between oared and sailing navies became more common. In France, the administrative language of the early 17th century made a strict distinction between marine ("navy") and galères ("galleys") with the former referring exclusively to sailing ships. This separation did not disappear completely until the 1650s when modern state navies began to emerge.[140] [in User:Peter Isotalo/the corps]

Construction

Building an efficient galley posed technical problems. The faster a ship travels, the more energy it uses. Through a process of trial and error, the unireme or monoreme — a galley with one row of oars on each side — reached the peak of its development in the penteconter, about 38 m long, with 25 oarsmen on each side. It could reach 9 knots (18 km/h), only a knot or so slower than modern rowed racing-boats. To maintain the strength of such a long craft tensioned cables were fitted from the bow to the stern; this provided rigidity without adding weight. This technique kept the joints of the hull under compression - tighter, and more waterproof. The tension in the modern trireme replica anti-hogging cables was 300 kN (Morrison p198).

Propulsion

In the latter half of the Middle Ages, large war galleys had three rows of oars, but with all oars on the same level in sets of three to a bench. This layout of oars is best known under the medieval Italian term alla sensile, "in the simple fashion", and relied on skilled oarsmen.

Crew

Conditions aboard early modern galleys were often described as filthy due to heavy over-crowding. In the French galley corps, well-known as a floating penal institution, it was even believed that it contributed to the speedy decay of the ships' timbers.[159] The great stench of galleys was actually reputed to be origin for use of perfume by aristocractic French galley officers.[160] In fact, only the great slave ships that plied the Atlantic Ocean from the 17th to the 19th century suffered more crowded conditions than galleys (though the latter stayed close to shore).[161]

Rowers

Galleys slaves

Prisoners of war were often used as galley slaves. Several well-known historical figures served time as galley slaves after being captured by the enemy, the Ottoman corsair and admiral Turgut Reis, the Maltese Grand Master Jean Parisot de la Valette, and the author of Don Quijote, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, among them.

Galley slaves lived in very unhealthy conditions, and many died even if sentenced only for a few years provided they escaped shipwreck and death in battle in the first place.

Piracy

The triemiolia was a a trireme part of the uppermost row of oarsmen could be removed to make room for a mast, was first developed as a pirate-hunter in Rhodes during the 4th century to catch hemiolias.[168]

Cilician (modern day southern Turkey) pirates experienced their heydays during the 1st century BC using liburnians, hemiolias and even the occasional trireme. However, they were eradicated in a massive pirate hunting campaign by the former Roman consul Pompey in 67 BC, an operation that created the squadrons that would later become the core of the new Roman regional fleets.[169]

Galleys had likely been employed for piracy in the Mediterranean since early Antiquity, and the predatory activities intensified after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The eastern Mediterranean became a kind of no man's land in the 9th century, located in the middle of the rivalry between the Byzantines and Muslim states. The island of Crete, as a Muslim emirate served as a major base for medieval pirates until it was re-captured by the Byzantines in 960.[185] The Western Mediterranean in the early Middle Ages lacked influence from any major powers, making it even less regulate and prone to piracy, with most of the trade being in more expensive goods (spices, silks, slaves, etc.) in well-defended merchant galleys.[186]

[lots added to piracy]

Though less romanticized and less famous than Atlantic and Caribbean pirates, the corsairs Mediterranean equaled or outnumbered them at any given point in history.[187] Mediterranean piracy was conducted almost entirely with galleys until the mid-17th century, when they were gradually replaced with highly maneuverable sailing vessels such as xebecs and brigantines. They were, however, of a smaller type than battle galleys, often referred to as galiots or fustas.[188] Pirate galleys were small, nimble, lightly armed, but often heavily manned in order to overwhelm the often minimal crews of merchant ships. In general, pirate craft were extremely difficult for patrolling craft to actually hunt down and capture. Anne Hilarion de Tourville, a French admiral of the 17th century, believed that the only way to run down raiders from the infamous corsair Moroccan port of Salé was by using a captured pirate vessel of the same type.[189] Using oared vessels to combat pirates was common, and was even practiced by the major powers in the Caribbean. Purpose-built galleys (or hybrid sailing vessels) were built by the English in Jamaica in 1683[190] and by the Spanish in the late 16th century.[191] Specially-built sailing frigates with oar-ports on the lower decks, like the James Galley and Charles Galley, and oar-equipped sloops proved highly useful for pirate hunting, though they were not built in sufficient numbers to check piracy until the 1720s.[192]

The expansion of Muslim power through the Ottoman conquest of large parts of the eastern Mediterraneanin the 15th and 16th century resulted in extensive piracy on sea trading. The so-called Barbary corsairs began to operate out of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco and Morea (modern-day Greece) around 1500, preying primarily on the shipping of Christian powers, including massive slave raids on land as well as at sea. They were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, but had considerable independence to prey on the enemies of Islam. The Muslim corsairs were technically often privateers with support from legitimate, though highly belligerent, states. But they also considered themselves as holy Muslim warriors, or ghazis,[193] carrying on the tradition of fighting the incursion of Western Christians that had begun with the First Crusade late in the 11th century.[194] The Barbary corsairs had a direct Christian counterpart in the military order of the Knights of Saint John that operated out of Rhodes (Malta after 15??), though they were less numerous and took fewer slaves. Both sides waged war against the respective enemies of their faith, and both used galleys as their primary weapons. Both sides also used captured or bought galley slaves to man the oars of their ships; the Muslims relying mostly on captured Christians, the Christians using a mix of Muslim slaves, Christian convicts and a small contingency of buonavoglie, free men who out of desperation or poverty had taken to rowing.[195] Historian Peter Earle has described the two sides of the conflict as "mirror image[s] of maritime predation, two businesslike fleets of plunderers set against each other"[196]. This conflict of faith in the form of privateering, piracy and slave raiding generated a complex system that was upheld/financed/operated on the trade in plunder and slaves that was generated from a low-intensive conflict, as well as the need for protection from violence. The system has been described as a "massive, multinational protection racket".[197], the Christian side of which was not ended until 1798 in the Napoleonic Wars. The Barbary corsairs were finally quelled as late as the 1830s, effectively ending the last vestiges of counter-crusading.[198]

Strategy

Sailing was restricted in the winter season; most maritime activity was conducted in the period between April and October throughout all of antiquity. Rough weather and storms were potent risks in winter, but the biggest obstacle was poor visibility and cloudy skies. Visibility in the Mediterranean was otherwise very good and the open water distances were few and small enough not to be a major limitation. The navigational tools of the ancient mariner was based on following known stars and constellations and following known landmarks. Pilots familiar with their local coastal areas were also used, as were lead lines that could make soundings and pick up bottom samples. It's possible that primitive sea charts existed, though none have survived.[207] The open sea was also avoided because it was for the most part a no-man's-land where one risked attack and plunder. The only way to control the ancient sea lanes was to have overwhelming superiority in forces or to control most of the coastal areas, something which required massive resources that only a few large empires were capable of.[208]

In the 16th century, gunpowder artillery was still quite expensive, scarce and still in the early stages of development. The galley therefore remained the most effective warship in the Mediterranean since it was the type of vessel that could be most effective in boarding actions and for amphibious operations, particularly against medieval-type seaside fortifications with relatively thin walls that had been built to stand up to heavy artillery bombardment.[210] As floating siege batteries, galleys battered down fort and castle walls quickly and could follow up by landing troop to subdue garrisons. With an appropriate base and a supply fleet, they could conduct raids and invasions in a strategic radius of some 3,200 km (2,000 mi).[211] Before the 1580s, before a sizable arsenal had begun to accumulate, and before the invention of cheaper cast-iron guns, cannons were made from bronze and were quite rare. It was the personnel organizations and administrative structures, as well as the gun arsenals, that were the most vital strategic resources, not the galleys that carried them.[212]

Unlike sailing vessels, galleys themselves were comparatively cheap and therefore expendable. The administrative and financial problem was not in producing enough hulls, but to supply the manpower to row and fight them, both in terms of quantity and quality, and to acquire the very expensive artillery to arm them. In contrast, sailing ship fleets were from an early stage complex and expensive vessels with large amounts of artillery with temporary, while the crew itself was more expendable.[213]

A contributing factor to the decline of the galley was the decline of profitability of trade in the Mediterranean after c. 1600 due to increased pirate activity and the inability of states to maintain a monopoly on violence to protect merchants.[214] The Mediterranean system of maritime warfare was also affected by by economic development and indirectly by technological development: a rise in food prices increased maintenance of armies while lower prices and increasing availability of artillery favored sailing ships. Increasingly larger galleys effectively stunted their own performance, range and amphibious capabilities (being harder to beach, etc.) while the specialist gunnery culture focused on a few large naval guns disappeared.[215]

In the 14th and 15th centuries merchant galleys traded high-value goods and carried passengers. Major routes in the time of the early Crusades carried the pilgrim traffic to the Holy Land. Later routes linked ports around the Mediterranean, between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (a grain trade soon squeezed off by the Turkish capture of Constantinople, 1453) and between the Mediterranean and Bruges— where the first Genoese galley arrived at Sluys in 1277, the first Venetian galere in 1314— and Southampton. Although primarily sailing vessels, they used oars to enter and leave many trading ports of call, the most effective way of entering and leaving the Lagoon of Venice. The Venetian galera, beginning at 100 tons and built as large as 300, was not the largest merchantman of its day, when the Genoese carrack of the 15th century might exceed 1000 tons.[219] In 1447, for instance, Florentine galleys planned to call at 14 ports on their way to and from Alexandria.[220] The availability of oars enabled these ships to navigate close to the shore where they could exploit land and sea breezes and coastal currents, to work reliable and comparatively fast passages against the prevailing wind. The large crews also provided protection against piracy. These ships were very seaworthy; a Florentine great galley left Southampton on 23 February 1430 and returned to its port at Pisa in 32 days.

Other uses?

Religious/ceremonial, prestige

Research

Archaeology

Surviving vessels

The naval museum in Istanbul contains the galley Kadırga (Turkish for "galley"), dating from the reign of Mehmed IV (1648–1687). It was the personal galley of the sultan, and remained in service until 1839. Kadırga is presumably the only surviving galley in the world, albeit without its masts. It is 37 m long, 5.7 m wide, has a draught of about 2 m, weighs about 140 tons, and has 48 oars that were powered by 144 oarsmen.

A 1971 reconstruction of the Real, the flagship of Don Juan de Austria in the Battle of Lepanto 1571, is in the Museu Marítim in Barcelona. The ship was 60 m long and 6.2 m wide, had a draught of 2.1 m, weighing 239 tons empty, was propelled by 290 rowers, and carried about 400 crew and fighting soldiers at Lepanto. She was substantially larger than the typical galleys of her time.

A group called "The Trireme Trust" operates, in conjunction with the Greek Navy, a reconstruction of an ancient Greek Trireme, the Olympias.[227]

Notes

  1. ^ Unger (1980) pp. 34-35
  2. ^ Unger (1980) p. 56
  3. ^ Dotson (2003), pp. 134-35
  4. ^ Mott (2003), pp. 105-6
  5. ^ Gemignani, Marco, "The Navies of the Medici: The Florentine Navy and the Navy of the Sacred Military Order of St Stephen, 1547-1648" in Hattendorf & Unger (2003), pp. 173-75
  6. ^ Glete (2003), pp. 2-3
  7. ^ Jan Glete, "Vasatidens galärflottor" in Norman (2000), p. 43
  8. ^ Jan Glete, "Vasatidens galärflottor" in Norman (2000), p. 47
  9. ^ Jan Glete, "Vasatidens galärflottor" in Norman (2000), p. 38; see also Glete (1993), pp. 114–16, 139–46, 501–21; Glete (2000) pp. 93–111, 137–44
  10. ^ Jan Glete, "Kriget till sjöss 1788-1790" in Artéus (1992), p. 115
  11. ^ Lawrence V. Mott, "Iberian Naval Power, 1000-1650" in Hattendorf & Unger (2003), pp. 113-114
  12. ^ Pryor (1983), pp. 199
  13. ^ Hutchinson (1994), pp. 150-53
  14. ^ Glete (2003), pp. 224-25
  15. ^ Doumerc, Bernard, "An Examplary Maritime Republic: Venice at the End of the Middle Ages" in Hattendorf & Unger (2003), p. 155
  16. ^ Anderson (1962), pp. 61-66
  17. ^ Unger (1980) p. 57
  18. ^ Unger (1980) p. 58
  19. ^ Pryor (1992), p. 65-66
  20. ^ Unger (1980) p. 80
  21. ^ Unger (1980) pp. 82-94
  22. ^ Friel (2003), pp. 69-70
  23. ^ Friel (2003), p. 70
  24. ^ Friel (2003), p. 71
  25. ^ Guilmartin (1974), pp. 254–59
  26. ^ Guilmartin (1974), pp. 254–59
  27. ^ Guilmartin (1974), p. 263
  28. ^ Jan Glete, "The Oared Warship" in Gardiner & Lavery (1992), p. 98
  29. ^ Tenenti (1967)
  30. ^ Glete (2000), pp. 27-28 144; Rodger (2003), pp. 244-45. See also Guilmartin (1974) for a detailed discussion of the introduction of artillery on galley warfare.
  31. ^ Jan Glete, "Den ryska skärgårdsflottan: Myt och verklighet" in Norman (2000), p. 87
  32. ^ Jan Glete, "Den ryska skärgårdsflottan: Myt och verklighet" in Norman (2000), pp. 86–88
  33. ^ Jan Glete, "Kriget till sjöss 1788-1790" in Artéus (1992), p. 115
  34. ^ Jan Glete, "Vasatidens galärflottor" in Norman (2000), pp. 37, 41
  35. ^ Jan Glete, "Vasatidens galärflottor" in Norman (2000), p. 43
  36. ^ Anderson (1962), pp. 91-93; Berg, "Skärgårdsflottans fartyg" in Norman (2000) pp. 51
  37. ^ Lars Otto Berg, "Skärgårdsflottans fartyg: Typer och utveckling under 1700- och 1800-talen" in Norman (2000), pp. 51–52
  38. ^ Lars Otto Berg, "Skärgårdsflottans fartyg: Typer och utveckling under 1700- och 1800-talen" in Norman (2000), p. 57
  39. ^ Jan Glete, "Kriget till sjöss 1788-1790" in Artéus (1992), p. 116
  40. ^ Glete (2003), pp. 224-25
  41. ^ Jan Glete, "Den ryska skärgårdsflottan: Myt och verklighet" in Norman (2000), pp. 79–81
  42. ^ Jan Glete, "Den ryska skärgårdsflottan: Myt och verklighet" in Norman (2000), pp. 83–85
  43. ^ Lars Otto Berg, "Skärgårdsflottans fartyg: Typer och utveckling under 1700- och 1800-talen" in Norman (2000), p. 51
  44. ^ Lars Otto Berg, "Skärgårdsflottans fartyg: Typer och utveckling under 1700- och 1800-talen" in Norman (2000), p. 53
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