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((Short description|Type of computer application))
((about|trustless decentralized applications (DApp)|other types of decentralized applications|Distributed computing))
((multiple issues|
((More citations needed|date=June 2019))
((Outdated as of | year = 2021 | month = 03 | day = 7 | last updated = March 7, 2021 ))
))
A '''decentralised application''' ('''DApp,'''<ref>((Cite web |title=CVC Money Transmission Services Provided Through Decentralized Applications (DApps) |url=https://www.fincen.gov/sites/default/files/2019-05/FinCEN%20CVC%20Guidance%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=2019-05-09 |website=FinCEN))</ref> '''dApp''',<ref name=":0">((Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=IEEE DAPPS 2020 |url=https://ieeedapps.net/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426224502/https://ieeedapps.net/ |archive-date=2020-04-26 |access-date=2020-08-15 |website=ieeedapps.net))</ref> '''Dapp''', or '''dapp''') is an [[Application software|application]] that can operate autonomously, typically through the use of [[smart contracts]], that run on a [[decentralized computing]], [[blockchain]] or other distributed ledger system.<ref name=":2">((Cite journal |last1=Andoni |first1=Merlinda |last2=Robu |first2=Valentin |last3=Flynn |first3=David |last4=Abram |first4=Simone |last5=Geach |first5=Dale |last6=Jenkins |first6=David |last7=McCallum |first7=Peter |last8=Peacock |first8=Andrew |date=2019-02-01 |title=Blockchain technology in the energy sector: A systematic review of challenges and opportunities |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=100 |pages=143–174 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.10.014 |issn=1364-0321 |s2cid=116422191 |doi-access=free))</ref> Like traditional applications, DApps provide some function or utility to its users. However, unlike traditional applications, DApps operate without human intervention and are not owned by any one entity, rather DApps distribute [[Cryptocurrency#Crypto token|tokens]] that represent ownership.<ref name=":2" /> These tokens are distributed according to a programmed algorithm to the users of the system, diluting ownership and control of the DApp. Without any one entity controlling the system, the application is therefore [[Decentralization|decentralised]]. 

Decentralised applications have been popularised by [[Distributed ledger|distributed ledger technologies]] (DLT), such as the [[Ethereum]] or [[Cardano (blockchain platform)|Cardano]] blockchain, on which DApps are built, amongst other public blockchains.<ref>((cite web |last1=Popper |first1=Nathaniel |date=1 October 2017 |title=Understanding Ethereum, Bitcoin's Virtual Cousin (Published 2017) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/01/technology/what-is-ethereum.html |website=The New York Times))</ref>

DApps are divided into numerous categories: exchanges, businesses, gambling, games, finance, development, storage, [[Cryptocurrency wallet|wallet]], governance, property, [[Decentralized identifier|identity]], media, social, security, energy, insurance, health, etc.<ref name=":52">((Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Kaidong |last2=Ma |first2=Yun |last3=Huang |first3=Gang |last4=Liu |first4=Xuanzhe |date=2021 |title=A first look at blockchain-based decentralized applications |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/spe.2751 |journal=Software: Practice and Experience |language=en |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=2033–2050 |arxiv=1909.00939 |doi=10.1002/spe.2751 |issn=1097-024X |s2cid=202541736))</ref>((clarify|date=August 2023))

== Definition ==
There are a series of criteria that must be met in order for an application to be considered a DApp.

Traditional definitions of a decentralised application require a DApp to be [[Open source|open-source]]. That is, the application operates autonomously without a centralised entity in control of the majority of the application’s associated [[Cryptocurrency#Crypto token|tokens]].<ref name=":2" /> DApps also have a public, [[Decentralization|decentralised]] blockchain that is used by the application to keep a cryptographic record of data, including historical transactions.<ref name=":2" />

Although traditional DApps are typically open-source, DApps that are fully closed-source and partially closed-source have emerged as the cryptocurrency industry evolves. As of 2019, only 15.7% of DApps are fully open-source while 25% of DApps are closed source. In other words, the proportion of DApps with publicly available code is less than the proportion of Dapps without publicly available code.<ref name=":52" /> DApps that are open-source generally have higher transaction volumes than closed-source DApps.<ref name=":52" />

[[Bitcoin]], the first [[cryptocurrency]], is an example of a DApp.<ref>((Cite web |date=August 17, 2021 |title=Where did Bitcoins come from |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/cryptocurrency/where-did-bitcoins-come-from/articleshow/85390449.cms |access-date=2022-08-06 |website=The Times of India |language=en))</ref>

== Usage ==
DApps can be classified based on whether they operate on their own block chain, or whether they operate on the block chain of another DApp.

=== Smart contracts ===
((main|smart contract))
Smart contracts are used by developers to maintain data on the block chain and to execute operations.<ref name=":52" /> Multiple smart contracts can be developed for a single DApp to handle more complex operations.<ref name=":52" /> Over 75% of DApps are supported by a single smart contract, with the remainder using multiple smart contracts.<ref name=":52" />

DApps incur gas, that is fees paid to the validators of the block chain, due to the cost of deploying and executing the DApp's smart contracts.<ref name=":52" /> The amount of gas required of a DApp's functions is dependent on the complexity of its smart contracts.<ref name=":52" /> A complex smart contract of a DApp that operates on the [[Ethereum]] blockchain may fail to be deployed if it costs too much gas, leading to lower throughput and longer wait times for execution.<ref name=":52" />

=== Operation ===

Consensus mechanisms are used by DApps to establish consensus on the network. The two most common mechanisms to establish consensus are [[proof of work|proof-of-work]] (POW) and [[proof of stake|proof-of-stake]] (POS).<ref name=":3">Johnston, D., Yilmaz, S. O., Kandah, J., Bentenitis, N., Hashemi, F., Gross, R., ... & Mason, S. (2014). The General Theory of Decentralized Applications, DApps.</ref>

Proof-of-work utilises computational power to establish consensus through the process of [[Cryptocurrency#Mining|mining]].<ref name=":6">((Cite journal|last1=Hazari|first1=Shihab S.|last2=Mahmoud|first2=Qusay H.|date=2019|title=Comparative evaluation of consensus mechanisms in cryptocurrencies|journal=Internet Technology Letters|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=e100|doi=10.1002/itl2.100|s2cid=169801236|issn=2476-1508|doi-access=free))</ref> Bitcoin uses the proof-of-work mechanism.<ref name=":6" /> Proof-of-stake is a consensus mechanism that supports DApps through validators that secure the network by having a stake and percent ownership over the application.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Icarus Bitcoin Mining rig.jpg|thumb|A Bitcoin mining rig composed of dozens of [[graphics processing unit]]s ]]
DApps distribute their tokens through three main mechanisms: [[Cryptocurrency#Mining|mining]], fund-raising and development.<ref name=":3" /> In mining, tokens are distributed as per a predetermined algorithm as rewards to miners that secure the network through transaction verification.<ref name=":3" /> Tokens can also be distributed through fundraising, whereby tokens are distributed in exchange for funding in the initial development phase of the DApp, as in an [[initial coin offering]].<ref name=":3" /> Lastly, the development mechanism distributes tokens that are set aside for the purpose of developing the DApp through a pre-determined schedule.<ref name=":3" />

There are three main steps that always occur in the formation and development of any DApp: the publishing of the DApp’s [[White paper|whitepaper]], the distribution of initial tokens, and the distribution of ownership.<ref name=":3" /> Firstly, the whitepaper is published, describing the DApp’s protocols, features and implementation.<ref name=":3" /> Then, required software and scripts are made available to the miners and stakeholders that support the validation and fundraising of the network.<ref name=":3" /> In exchange, they are rewarded with the initial tokens distributed by the system.<ref name=":3" /> Lastly, as greater numbers of participants join the network, either through utilisation of the DApp or through contributions to the DApp’s development, token ownership dilutes, and the system becomes less centralised.<ref name=":3" />

== Characteristics ==

DApps have their backend code running on a decentralized [[peer-to-peer network]], as opposed to typical applications where the backend code is running on centralized servers. A DApp can have frontend code and user interfaces written in any language that can make calls to its backend.

DApps have been utilized in [[decentralized finance]] (DeFi), in which dapps perform financial functions on [[blockchains]].<ref name="bloomberg.com">((cite web |title=Why 'DeFi' Utopia Would Be Finance Without Financiers: QuickTake |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-08-26/why-defi-utopia-would-be-finance-without-financiers-quicktake |website=Bloomberg.com |language=en|date=26 August 2020))</ref> Decentralized finance validating peer-to-peer transactions to disrupt centralized finance and lower the cost.<ref>((Cite journal |last1=Ao |first1=Ziqiao |last2=Horvath |first2=Gergely |last3=Zhang |first3=Luyao |date=June 2022 |title=Are decentralized finance really decentralized? A social network analysis of the Aave protocol on the Ethereum blockchain |journal=Papers |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/arx/papers/2206.08401.html |language=en))</ref>

The performance of a DApp is tied to its latency, throughput, and sequential performance.<ref name=":1" /> Bitcoin's system for transaction validation is designed so that the average time for a Bitcoin to be mined is 10 minutes.<ref name=":1" /> Ethereum offers a reduced latency of one transaction every 15 seconds. For comparison, [[Visa Inc.|Visa]] handles approximately 10,000 transactions per second.<ref name=":1" /><ref>((Cite news|last=Lee|first=Timothy|date=2013|title=Bitcoin needs to scale by a factor of 1000 to compete with Visa. Here's how to do it: The Bitcoin network can only handle 7 transactions per second. Visa can handle 10,000.|newspaper=The Washington Post))</ref> More recent DApp projects, such as [[Solana (blockchain platform)|Solana]], have attempted to exceed that rate.<ref>((cite news |last1=Prabhjote |first1=Gill |title=It's DeFi season and things got a little too hot to handle for Solana and Arbitrum One as transaction volumes ballooned |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/investment/news/solana-arbitrum-ethereum-networks-down-due-to-surge-in-transaction-volume/articleshow/86230919.cms |access-date=2 December 2021 |work=Business Insider India |date=15 September 2021))</ref>

Internet connectivity is a core dependency of blockchain systems, which includes DApps.<ref name=":1" /> High monetary costs also act as a barrier. Transactions of small monetary values can comprises a large proportion of the transferred amount.<ref name=":1" /> Greater demand for the service also leads to increased fees due to increased network traffic.<ref name=":4">((Cite journal|title=Transaction fee economics in the Ethereum blockchain|year=2022|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ecin.13025|language=en|doi=10.1111/ecin.13025|last1=Donmez|first1=Anil|last2=Karaivanov|first2=Alexander|journal=Economic Inquiry|volume=60|pages=265–292|s2cid=244232599))</ref> This is an issue for [[Ethereum]], which is attributed to increased network traffic caused by DApps built on the [[Ethereum]] blockchain, such as those used by [[Non-fungible token]]s (NFTs).<ref name=":4" /> Transaction fees are affected by the complexity of a DApp's smart contracts, and by the particular blockchain.<ref name=":5">((Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Kaidong |last2=Ma |first2=Yun |last3=Huang |first3=Gang |last4=Liu |first4=Xuanzhe |date=2021 |title=A first look at blockchain-based decentralized applications |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/spe.2751 |journal=Software: Practice and Experience |language=en |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=2033–2050 |arxiv=1909.00939 |doi=10.1002/spe.2751 |issn=1097-024X |s2cid=202541736))</ref>

== Trends ==
[[Ethereum]] is the distributed ledger technology (DLT) that has the largest DApp market.<ref name=":5" /> The first DApp on the Ethereum blockchain was published on April 22, 2016.<ref name=":5" /> From May 2017, the number of DApps being developed have grown at a higher rate.<ref name=":5" /> After February 2018, DApps have been published every day.<ref name=":5" /> Less than one fifth of DApps capture almost all the DApp users on the Ethereum blockchain.<ref name=":5" /> About 5% of DApps capture 80% of Ethereum transactions.<ref name=":5" /> 80% of DApps on Ethereum are used by less than 1000 users.<ref name=":5" /> On Ethereum, DApps that are exchanges capture 61.5% of transaction volume, finance DApps capture 25.6%, gambling DApps capture 5%, high-risk DApps capture 4.1%, and games capture 2.5%.<ref name=":5" />

DApps have not achieved wide adoption. Potential users may not have the skill or knowledge to be able to effectively analyse the differences between DApps and traditional applications, and also may not value those differences. This skill and information can be difficult to access for mainstream users. Additionally, the user experience for DApps is often poor, as they are often developed to prioritize functionality, maintenance and stability.<ref name=":8">((Cite book|last1=Glomann|first1=Leonhard|last2=Schmid|first2=Maximilian|last3=Kitajewa|first3=Nika|title=Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software and Systems Engineering |chapter=Improving the Blockchain User Experience - an Approach to Address Blockchain Mass Adoption Issues from a Human-Centred Perspective |series=Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing |date=2020|editor-last=Ahram|editor-first=Tareq |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-030-20454-9_60 |volume=965|language=en|location=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=608–616|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-20454-9_60|isbn=978-3-030-20454-9|s2cid=198325323))</ref>

Many DApps struggle to attract users, particularly in their founding stages, and even those that attract widespread initial popularity struggle to retain it.((Full citation needed|date=January 2021))

A notable example was the DApp ''[[CryptoKitties]]'', which heavily slowed down the Ethereum network at the height of its popularity.<ref>((Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/12/03/people-have-spent-over-1m-buying-virtual-cats-on-the-ethereum-blockchain/|title = People have spent over $1M buying virtual cats on the Ethereum blockchain| date=3 December 2017 ))</ref> ''CryptoKitties'' and another similar gaming-based DApp Dice Games have failed to attract similar traction since.<ref>((Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/cryptokitties-and-dice-games-fail-to-lure-users-to-dapps-11559122201|title = CryptoKitties and Dice Games Fail to Lure Users to Dapps|newspaper = Wall Street Journal|date = 29 May 2019|last1 = Vigna|first1 = Paul))</ref>((Update after|2021|3|5))

== Examples ==
<!-- Examples should be notable, ie. with a Wikipedia entry -->

*[[Augur (software)|Augur]]<ref name="Bloomberg">((cite news |last1=Leising |first1=Matthew |title=As Crypto Meets Prediction Markets, Regulators Take Notice |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-07-26/as-crypto-meets-prediction-markets-u-s-regulators-take-notice |work=Bloomberg |date=July 26, 2018))</ref> ((En dash)) [[prediction market]] platform.
* [[Cryptokitties]] ((En dash)) game built on Ethereum.<ref name=":1">((Cite journal|last1=Cai|first1=Wei|last2=Wang|first2=Zehua|last3=Ernst|first3=Jason B.|last4=Hong|first4=Zhen|last5=Feng|first5=Chen|last6=Leung|first6=Victor C. M.|date=2018|title=Decentralized Applications: The Blockchain-Empowered Software System|journal=IEEE Access|volume=6|pages=53019–53033|doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2870644|arxiv=1810.05365|issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free))</ref> It slowed Ethereum down due to insufficient transaction processing and exposed the scaling limitations of public blockchains.<ref>((Cite news|last=Kharif|first=Olga|date=2017-12-05|title=CryptoKitties Mania Overwhelms Ethereum Network's Processing|work=Bloomberg|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-04/cryptokitties-quickly-becomes-most-widely-used-ethereum-app|access-date=2018-08-23))</ref>
*[[Stacks_blockchain|Stacks project]] ((En dash)) a platform for developing decentralized applications.<ref>((Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/sep/08/decentralisation-next-big-step-for-the-world-wide-web-dweb-data-internet-censorship-brewster-kahle|title=Decentralisation: the next big step for the world wide web|last=Corbyn|first=Zoë|date=2018-09-08|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-10-06|language=en-GB|issn=0029-7712))</ref>
*[[Freelance]] ((En dash)) platform on smart contract.
*[[Steemit]] ((En dash)) blogging and social media.<ref name=":1" />
*[[Uniswap]] ((En dash)) cryptocurrency exchange.<ref>((cite web |title=DeFi Boom Makes Uniswap Most Sought-After Crypto Exchange |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-16/defi-boom-makes-uniswap-most-sought-after-crypto-exchange |website=Bloomberg.com |language=en|date=16 October 2020))</ref>
*[[Session (software)|Session]] ((En dash)) blockchain-based end-to-end encrypted messenger.<ref>((cite news |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Shomik Sen |title=Session Is a Blockchain-Based Private Messenger That Uses Decentralised Server Nodes To Ensure Anonymity |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/cryptocurrency/news/session-private-blockchain-messenger-decentralised-nodes-2568208 |access-date=June 18, 2023 |work=Gadgets360 |publisher = [[NDTV]] |date=October 8, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=June 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618215132/https://www.gadgets360.com/cryptocurrency/news/session-private-blockchain-messenger-decentralised-nodes-2568208 |url-status=live ))</ref>

== References ==
((reflist))

((Cryptocurrencies))

[[Category:Blockchains]]
[[Category:Cryptocurrencies]]
[[Category:Decentralization]]
[[Category:Distributed computing]]

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