Concepts
Endless runners can be side-scrolling, as in the genre's early titles, top-down, or 3D, but the player is placed in a neverending level in which the character automatically moves forward. The player's only form of control is to have the character dodge obstacles, either by moving out of the way or using a specific button.[5] Some form of points, currency, or other rewards are gained over time by maneuvering in the level or simply staying alive longer. The game progressively increases in difficulty as time goes on. The player has a game over if they are hindered enough by the obstacles that they are "caught" by whatever is chasing them and die.[1]
History
Precursors
The genre has its origins in the vertically scrolling video games of the 1970s, primarily racing games. The player always moves forward, avoiding obstacles and other vehicles. Taito's Speed Race, released in 1974, was the first. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the same concept was used in skiing games.
Vehicle-oriented platform games, like Jump Bug (1981) and Moon Patrol (1982), added both jumping and shooting as ways to deal with obstacles in continually scrolling levels. The home game B.C.'s Quest for Tires (1983) uses the forced-scrolling and jumping gameplay of Moon Patrol.
The idea of being chased relentlessly by an indestructible obstacle, monster, or boss to enforce forward progression was greatly influenced by the boulder scene from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark. This theme appeared in games like Draconian (1984) in which the player must avoid obstacles while being pursued by an invincible giant dragon. This would become a recurring theme of endless running gameplay.
Early development
Atomic Runner Chelnov (1988), while also a shooter, has many of the hallmarks of a modern runner with forced scrolling and long jumping onto platforms to avoid hazards.
The 1990 Amiga and TV show game Hugo featured sequences of 3d endless running.
SkiFree (1991) by Chris Pirih and released in Microsoft Entertainment Pack 3 is probably the earliest true endless runner and was inspired by the 1980 Atari 2600 cartridge Skiing.[6] The player skis down an endless slope with procedurally generated obstacles, pursued by large indestructible yetis. Score is based on distance traveled.[7]
Battletoads (1991) has several forced scrolling areas where the player is required to avoid hazards and obstacles.[8] In Genji Tsuushin Agedama (1991) the player is constantly running in a forced scrolled environment. The pinball machine Doctor Who (1992) includes a video mode with forced running and avoiding obstacles.
SFCave (1996) is a Windows 3.1 game that involves flying through an endless cave without hitting the walls.
The 3D platform game Crash Bandicoot (1996) focuses on forward movement within corridors primarily in third person perspective, including obstacles and hazards that prevent backward motion, very similar to the modern Temple Run clone. It also includes levels where Crash must constantly stay ahead of a large boulder or pursuing dinosaur.
Mobile gaming boom and the emergence of endless games
The emergence of the touchscreen on smart phones and tablets paved the way for the type of simplistic game controls which gave birth to the modern genre.
Doodle Jump (April 2009), a vertical scroller, was one of the first mobile titles to be endless, with game only ending when falling to the bottom of the screen or hitting an obstacle. It was to pave the way for even more popular titles.[9]
The prototypical endless runner, building on Doodle Jump's success, was Canabalt (August 2009),[10] an indie game developed by Adam Saltsman in which the player flees from a city being destroyed by giant robots that is procedurally generated and infinite. Cannabalt used distance gained as the main scoring system. These were both common elements of subsequent runners. The 2D scroller limited movement to leaping and dodging obstacles simply by touching the screen, overcoming control limitation of touchscreen devices.[11] Adult Swim Games soon asked Saltsman for permission to adapt Canabalt's design into their own title, and released Robot Unicorn Attack (2010). It became an internet meme due to Adult Swim's larger audience and its quirky themes.
Within just months, the App Store was full of 2D endless runner clones. Some of the more popular 2D mobile titles included Tiny Wings (February 2011), Jetpack Joyride (September 2011), Punch Quest (2012) and Flappy Bird (2013). Running with Friends (2013) is notable in its effort to integrate with Facebook to support social multiplayer running.
Monetization and the free-to-play model
Endless runners became known for the addictiveness of their gameplay. This also led to them being monetized using the Free to Play model. Monetization tactics used in endless runners included virtual currencies (using In app purchases on mobile and support for:[12]
- Fast-track progress (so as to avoid having to repeat early stages of the game)
- Credit to extend the run (such as with extra lives) and avoid game over (however this is often considered cheating)
- Customisation or unlocking of new main characters
- Social score comparison
- Advertising
Transition to 3D
Hugo featured 3D endless running already in 1990.
Bit.Trip Runner (2010) added rhythm game elements and was also one of the first in the genre to be rendered in 2.5D.[4]
Another of the earliest 3D titles in the genre was Temple Run (August, 2011), introducing an over-the-shoulder viewpoint.[4] Temple Run was followed by numerous clones and 3D innovations. Among the more popular third person 3D titles were Subway Surfers and Agent Dash (2012). Subway Surfers went on to become the most popular game of the 2010s, the first game to reach 1 billion downloads and with a total of 2.7 billion downloads achieved revenues of over $80 million through monetization.[13]
Peak Popularity
During the 2010s numerous large franchises adapted their gameplay into endless runner mobile spin-offs. The 2010s these included reboots of classic video games as endless runners including the notable titles: Pitfall! (2012), Rayman Jungle Run (2012), Rayman Fiesta Run, Sonic Dash[2] and Pac-Man Dash! (2013), Crossy Road (2014), Lara Croft: Relic Run[14] and Pac-Man 256 (2015).[15] Original titles were often lost in the sea of generic titles, rare exceptions were Race The Sun (2013) and Alto's Adventure (2015) which received positive reviews.[16]
Google's Dinosaur Game (2014) was released at the height of the endless running craze with developers in September 2018 revealling that it had been played approximately 270 million times monthly.[17] Microsoft was later to do the same with Surf (2020).
Post 2010s the format has been criticised for being uninspired, particularly the adapted franchises, and a genre lacking ongoing innovation.[18][19]
