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((Short description|Category of positions in the philosophy of mind))

((Refimprove|article|date=January 2018))

[[Image:Property dualism.jpg|thumb|Property dualism: the exemplification of two kinds of property by one kind of substance]]

'''Property dualism''' describes a category of positions in the [[philosophy of mind]] which hold that, although the world is composed of just one kind of [[Substance theory|substance]]—[[Materialism|the physical kind]]—there exist two distinct kinds of properties: [[physical properties]] and [[mental properties]]. In other words, it is the view that at least some non-physical, mental properties (such as thoughts, imagination and memories) exist in, or naturally [[Supervenience|supervene]] upon, certain physical substances (namely [[Human Brain|brains]]).

[[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Substance dualism]], on the other hand, is the view that there exist in the universe two fundamentally different kinds of substance: physical ([[matter]]) and non-physical ([[mind]] or [[consciousness]]), and subsequently also two kinds of properties which inhere in those respective substances. Substance dualism is thus more susceptible to the [[mind–body problem]]. Both substance and property dualism are opposed to [[reductive physicalism]].

== Epiphenomenalism ==
((Main|Epiphenomenalism))

Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine about mental-physical causal relations which holds that one or more mental states and their properties are the by-products (or [[epiphenomena]]) of the states of a closed physical system, and are not causally reducible to physical states (do not have any influence on physical states). According to this view, mental properties are as such real constituents of the world, but they are causally impotent; while physical causes give rise to mental properties like [[wikt:sensation|sensation]]s, [[volition (psychology)|volition]], [[idea]]s, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further - they are causal dead ends.<ref>((Harnvb|Churchland|1984|page=11))</ref>
[[File:Turner - Rain, Steam and Speed - National Gallery file.jpg|thumb|Huxley explained mental properties as like the steam on a locomotive.]]
The position is credited to English biologist [[Thomas Huxley]] (Huxley 1874), who analogised mental properties to the whistle on a steam locomotive. The position found a level of favor amongst some scientific [[behaviorists]] over the next few decades, which then dove in response to the [[cognitive revolution]] in the 1960s.
=== Epiphenomenal qualia ===
((Main|Knowledge argument))

In the paper "Epiphenomenal Qualia" and later "What Mary Didn't Know" [[Frank Cameron Jackson|Frank Jackson]] made the so-called knowledge argument against physicalism. The [[thought experiment]] was originally proposed by Jackson as follows:

((Quotation|Mary is a brilliant scientist who is, for whatever reason, forced to investigate the world from a black and white room via a black and white television monitor. She specializes in the [[neurophysiology]] of vision and acquires, let us suppose, all the physical information there is to obtain about what goes on when we see ripe tomatoes, or the sky, and use terms like 'red', 'blue', and so on. She discovers, for example, just which wavelength combinations from the sky stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces via the [[central nervous system]] the contraction of the vocal cords and expulsion of air from the lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence 'The sky is blue'. [...] What will happen when Mary is released from her black and white room or is given a [[color television]] monitor? Will she learn anything or not?<ref name="p130">((Harvnb|Jackson|1982|p=130))</ref>))

Jackson continued:

((quote|It seems just obvious that she will learn something about the world and our visual experience of it. But then it is inescapable that her previous knowledge was incomplete. But she had all the physical information. Ergo, there is more to have than that, and Physicalism is false.<ref name="p130"/>))

== Panpsychist property dualism ==
((Main|Panpsychism))

Panpsychism is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view. Superficially, it seems to be a form of property dualism, since
it regards everything as having both mental and physical properties. However, some panpsychists say that mechanical behaviour is derived from the primitive mentality of atoms and molecules &mdash; as are sophisticated mentality and organic behaviour, the difference being attributed to the presence or absence of [[complexity|complex]] structure in a compound object. So long as the ''reduction'' of non-mental properties to mental ones is in place, panpsychism is not strictly a form of property dualism; otherwise it is.((cn|date=February 2019))

[[David Chalmers]] has expressed sympathy for panpsychism (or at least for a modified variant, called panprotopsychism) as a possible resolution to the [[hard problem of consciousness]], though he regards the [[combination problem]] as an important obstacle for the theory.<ref name="Chalmers-caipin">((cite encyclopedia|last1=Chalmers|first1=David J.|editor1-last=Stich|editor1-first=Stephen P.|editor2-last=Warfield|editor2-first=Ted A.|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind|title=Consciousness and its Place in Nature|date=2003|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=978-0631217756|edition=1st|url=http://consc.net/papers/nature.pdf|access-date=21 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003182905/http://www.consc.net/papers/nature.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2017))</ref> Other philosophers who have taken interest in the view include [[Thomas Nagel]],<ref name="sep-panpsych">((cite encyclopedia|last=Goff|first=Philip|author2=Seager|author2-first=William|author3=Allen-Hermanson|author3-first=Sean|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-link=Edward N. Zalta|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|title=Panpsychism|year=2017|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/panpsychism/|access-date=15 September 2018))</ref> [[Galen Strawson]],<ref name="sep-panpsych"/><ref name="strawson">((cite journal |last1=Strawson |first1=Galen |title=Realistic monism: Why physicalism entails panpsychism |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |date=2006 |volume=13 |issue=10/11 |pages=3–31 |url=http://www.newdualism.org/papers/G.Strawson/strawson_on_panpsychism.pdf |access-date=15 September 2018))</ref> [[Timothy Sprigge]],<ref name="sep-panpsych"/> [[William Seager (philosopher)|William Seager]],<ref name="seager2006">((cite journal |last1=Seager |first1=William |author-link1=William Seager (philosopher) |title=The Intrinsic Nature Argument for Panpsychism |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |date=2006 |volume=13 |issue=10–11 |pages=129–145 |url=https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~seager/intnat.pdf |access-date=7 February 2019))</ref> and [[Philip Goff (philosopher)|Philip Goff]].<ref name="pn-goff">((cite web |last1=Goff |first1=Philip |title=The Case for Panpsychism |url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/121/The_Case_For_Panpsychism |website=Philosophy Now |access-date=3 October 2018 |date=2017))</ref>

== Subjective idealism ==
((Main|Subjective idealism))

[[Subjective idealism]], proposed in the eighteenth century by [[George Berkeley]], is an ontic doctrine that directly opposes [[materialism]] or [[physicalism]]. It does not admit ontic property dualism, but does admit epistemic property dualism. It is rarely advocated by philosophers nowadays.

== Other proponents ==
=== Saul Kripke ===
Kripke has a well-known argument for some kind of property dualism. Using the concept of [[rigid designator]]s, he states that if dualism is [[Logical possibility|logically possible]], then it is the case.
((Quotation|Let 'Descartes' be a name, or rigid designator, of a certain person, and let 'B' be a rigid designator of his body. Then if Descartes were indeed [[Identity (philosophy)|identical]] to B, the supposed identity, being an identity between two rigid designators, would be [[Necessary (logic)|necessary]].))((Citation needed|date=August 2022))

== See also ==
* "[[What Is It Like to Be a Bat?]]"
* [[Chinese room]]
* [[Explanatory gap]]
* [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)]]
* [[Physicalism]]
* [[Qualia]]

== Notes ==
((Reflist))

== References ==
* ((cite book|year=1984|title=Matter and Consciousness|last=Churchland|first=Paul))
* Davidson, D. (1970) "Mental Events", in Actions and Events, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980
* Huxley, Thomas. (1874) "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History", ''The Fortnightly Review'', n.s. 16, pp.&nbsp;555–580. Reprinted in ''Method and Results: Essays by Thomas H. Huxley'' (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1898)
* Jackson, F. (1982) "Epiphenomenal Qualia", ''The Philosophical Quarterly'' 32: 127-136.
* Kim, Jaegwon. (1993) "Supervenience and Mind", Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* MacLaughlin, B. (1992) "The Rise and Fall of British Emergentism", in Beckerman, et al. (eds), Emergence or Reduction?, Berlin: De Gruyter.
* Mill, John Stuart (1843). "System of Logic". London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. [8th ed., 1872].

== External links ==
* [http://www.newdualism.org/papers/M.Robertson/churchl.pdf M. D. Robertson: Dualism vs. Materialism: A Response to Paul Churchland]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Dualism]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epiphenomenalism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Epiphenomenalism]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Physicalism]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/nontheism/atheism/minds.html The Argument from Physical Minds]

((Philosophy of mind))

((DEFAULTSORT:Property Dualism))

[[Category:Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]
[[Category:Metaphysics of mind]]
[[Category:Theory of mind]]

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