The Second Temple period in Judaism began with the end of the Babylonian captivity and the Persian conquest of the Near East in 539 BCE. The Second Temple was then built, and finished around 516 BCE. The conquests of Macedonia under Alexander the Great in 332 BCE saw Judea and the Near East placed under Greek influence during the Hellenistic period; Hellenistic Judaism blended both Greek and Jewish traditions. The Maccabean Revolt of 167–142 BCE was fight a first for Judean autonomy against a suppression of traditional Judaism, and later acquired outright independence under the rule of the Hasmonean family in an independent Hasmonean kingdom. The Hasmoneans would rule until 63 BCE, when they were reduced to client king status as Roman puppets; that too would end in 37 BCE, with King Herod the Great taking control, leading to the Herodian dynasty. Herod's death would lead to both the Herodian Tetrarchy where smaller regions ruled by members of his family, as well as direct Roman control by the governors of Roman Judea. The period would come to an end with the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73 CE. Jerusalem was conquered in 70 CE, and the Second Temple was destroyed.
This timeline focuses both on political events in Judea and the surrounding regions, as well as issues related to wider diaspora Judaism practiced outside Judea. Many of the dates in ancient sources are given in terms of the Seleucid era (SE) and the Ancient Macedonian calendar, which do not always map cleanly to Julian calendar dates, leading to a certain degree of uncertainty.
Traditional date of the Edict of Cyrus, a decree allowing and encouraging Jews of the Babylonian captivity to return to Judea. Regardless of whether such an edict directly addressing the Jews existed, Persian religious policy does allow for local religions to practice undisturbed as long as they do not foment rebellion, including Judaism.[1]
Possible mission of Sheshbazzar, an enigmatic figure described in Ezra 1. He is credited with returning the temple vessels to Jerusalem, and possibly also being a governor who laid the foundations for the temple in a quoted document in Ezra 5.[2]
538–332 BCE
At unknown points during the Persian period, various books are written or finalized (if based on earlier, lost material). These include the Book of Malachi, the Books of Chronicles, and possibly the Book of Jonah, the Book of Ruth, and the Song of Songs. Some sections of the Book of Isaiah, notably the third part (chapters 56–66), are probably written. The first two chapters of the Book of Joel are probably written, and possibly the whole book, although the date of the last two chapters is contested.[3]
The proposed priestly source (P) in the documentary hypothesis makes additions and revisions to the five books of the Torah (Pentateuch), with knowledge of the post-exilic period.[3]
Zerubbabel is appointed governor of Yehud. He is said to have led a group of Jewish returnees from Babylon to Yehud. Provisional work on a new temple starts, but is quickly stopped.[4]
Mission of Ezra the Scribe, who takes another group of returnees from Babylon to Judea with the approval of King Artaxerxes in the seventh year of his reign (if this reference is to Artaxerxes I).[8]
445–433 BCE
Mission of Nehemiah, a member of Artaxerxes's administration who requests leave to go to Judah and rebuild it, possibly after some unrecorded disaster in Jerusalem at a point prior. He embarks upon a campaign to purge Judea of foreign influence and builds a wall around Jerusalem.[9]
430–350 BCE
According to Josephus, at some point in this period, an incident occurs where High Priest Johanan murders his brother Jesus inside the Temple; general Bagoses (possibly the same as Bagoas, if a later date is assumed?) punishes the crime and imposes a seven-year tribute on Judea.[10]
According to a Jewish tradition, Alexander visits Jerusalem, corresponds with the Jewish high priest, praises Judaism, and makes a sacrifice to the God of Israel. The tradition is considered legendary and not historical, however.[16][17]
Little is known of affairs of Judea in this period, but it was fought over and suffered. General Ptolemy's forces triumph at the nearby Battle of Gaza (312 BCE), but are forced to retreat from the Antigonid prince Demetrius after a loss in Syria, and burn many cities in the Palestine region in the retreat (Joppa, Acre, Gaza), giving the region back to the Antigonids. Ptolemy retakes most of the Palestine region without a fight in 302–301 BCE. The region is awarded to Seleucus after a settlement among the victors at the Battle of Ipsus, but Ptolemy ignores the settlement and refuses to hand it over.[19]
There is a migration of Jews from Palestine to Egypt amid the chaos, possibly prompted by Ptolemy I.[18]
Coele-Syria, including Judea, is ruled by Ptolemaic Egypt. The Seleucid Empire, claiming that the region was awarded to Seleucus, attempts to conquer the region several times during the Syrian Wars.[14]
Book of Tobit is probably written. It is possible it dates from even earlier, however.[20]
The Aramaic Levi Document, a Jewish predecessor of the Christian Testament of Levi, is possibly written.[22]
Origin of the Septuagint: During this century, important Jewish writings begin to be translated into Greek for Hellenistic Jews whose first language is Greek.[23]
The Tobiad clan becomes wealthy as tax agents for the Ptolemies.[24]
259 BCE
Zenon of Kaunos, a Ptolemaic minister of finance, tours Palestine region; his compiled documents ("Zenon papyri") are later discovered in the 20th century, and are some of the rare surviving material on Jews in the region.[25][26]
221–204 BCE
Reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator in Egypt. The setting of the book 3 Maccabees, which describes a persecution of Egyptian Jews by Philopator after he returned from the Battle of Raphia (217 BCE); the historicity of such an event is highly suspect, however, and it is described nowhere else. However, another source, the "Raphia Decree", indicates Ptolemy IV did go on a tour of shrines in the Syro-Palestine region, and he may well have stopped at Jerusalem's Second Temple.[27][28][29]
Seleucus IV Philopator rules as king. At some point, his minister Heliodorus attempts to tax the Second Temple for money after hearing rumors of its wealth, but fails.[14][36]
Shortly after, Onias III is replaced by his brother Jason as High Priest by Antiochus IV. He obtains permission to found a Hellenistic community in Jerusalem.[14][39]
c. 174–172 BCE
Antiochus IV visits Jerusalem, where he receives an enthusiastic welcome from Jason.[14][40]
c. 173–172 BCE
Menelaus appointed High Priest. Former High Priest Jason flees into exile (possibly to Tobiad territory?).[14]
Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus IV Epiphanes defeats Ptolemaic Egypt in campaign.[40]
168 BCE
Battle of Pydna: Roman troops under Aemilius Paullus break the power of the Macedonians and Antigonid dynasty, further increasing Roman sway and influence in the Eastern Mediterranean.[37]
Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus Epiphanes returns to Egypt for a second campaign, but leaves in July 168 BCE after a Roman show of support for the Ptolemies.[37][42]
Antiochus IV plunders the Second Temple for treasure with the aid of High Priest Menelaus. (Sources conflict for whether this was after the first 169 BCE expedition or the second 168 BCE expedition.)[43][42]
168–167 BCE
Unrest in Jerusalem. Jason attempts to oust Menelaus for the position of High Priest. Possibly, rebels take the city. Jerusalem is attacked by the Seleucid army; many Jerusalemites are killed or enslaved; the Acra citadel is raised and fortified in Jerusalem, and Menelaus is restored to his position. Antiochus IV issues several decrees aimed at curtailing the practice of traditional Judaism, beginning a period of persecution.[44]
Authorship of various books that seem to be familiar with the persecution of Antiochus IV. Suggested dates for the Book of Jubilees include c. 168 BCE, 161–140 BCE, and 125 BCE.[45][46] The Book of Baruch is also probably written.[47]
The Book of Enoch expands to include the "Apocalypse of Weeks" (chapters 91–93), likely written early in the persecution (c. 167 BCE), as well as the "Book of Dreams" and "Animal Apocalypse" (chapters 83–90), likely written later in the Revolt.[48][49]
167–165 BCE
The Book of Daniel, or at least chapters 1 and 7–12, is written at some point after Antiochus IV's anti-Jewish decrees, but before news of his death reaches Judea. It is the last work to be included in the main canon of the Tanakh (Hebrew Scriptures).[14][50][51]
c. 166 BCE
Mattathias, a priest in rural Modein, kills a Seleucid official and Jew who had obeyed the decree, then flees into the wilderness with his family to lead a band of rebels.[52]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes leaves to the east for an expedition to the Upper Satrapies (Babylonia and Persia).[37]
Battle of Emmaus: Judas Maccabeus defeats a Seleucid military expedition via a daring night march and surprise attack.[53]
October – December 164 BCE
Lysias launches his first military expedition to Judea. The Battle of Beth-Zur is fought, which ends inconclusively. The Seleucid force returns to Antioch.[53]
November – December 164 BCE
Death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Persia (Isfahan or Elymais). When news reaches Antioch, he is succeeded by his young son Antiochus V Eupator.[37]
January 14, 163 BCE (25 Kislev 148 SE)
Purification of the Second Temple after the rebels take Jerusalem; this is the origin of the festival of Hanukkah.[53]
Nicanor is appointed governor in Jerusalem and negotiates with the Maccabees. Alcimus complains to King Demetrius, and negotiations are undermined. The Battle of Caphar-salama occurrs.[61]
Timarchus declares himself king in the eastern satrapies of the Seleucid Empire; Demetrius sends armies east to respond.[61]
13 Adar (March) 161 BCE
Battle of Adasa: Judas's army defeats Nicanor's army; Nicanor is killed.[61]
Writings of the Jewish Hellenistic historian Eupolemus. (Not to be confused with the writings of Psuedo-Eupolemus, generally thought to be a Hellenized Samaritan writing at some point from 150–100 BCE.)[63]
Death of High Priest Alcimus.[14] His successor as High Priest is either unknown (possibly the Righteous Teacher?) or the position was left vacant.[64]
159–152 BCE
Seleucid control is restored over the major cities. Leadership of the rebels passes to Judas's brother, Jonathan Apphus. The Maccabees retreat to the countryside.[65]
157 BCE
Another peace treaty between the Seleucids and Jonathan's rebels; General Bacchides returns to Antioch and discontinues his anti-Maccabee campaign.[66]
Demetrius I dies; Alexander Balas takes control of the full Seleucid Empire.[67]
147–145 BCE
Demetrius II, the son of Demetrius I, challenges Alexander Balas for rule of the Seleucid Empire. Balas dies in 145 BCE after the Battle of the Oenoparus.[14]
147–143 BCE
Taking advantage of the Seleucid internal conflict, the Maccabees take Beth Zur and Joppa.[68]
Diodotus Tryphon, a leader supporting the claim of Antiochus VI Dionysus (a son of Alexander Balas) to the throne, captures Jonathan Apphus and executes him. Simon Thassi, Jonathan's brother, switches sides and supports Demetrius II against Tryphon.[14]
142 BCE
A letter from Demetrius II promises autonomy for Judea.[70]
A new treaty between Judea and the Roman Republic, at least according to a circular letter said to be negotiated by an embassy of Simon to the Roman Senate.[71][14]
The Acra citadel in Jerusalem, a stronghold of Greek influence, falls to the nascent Hasmonean state.[14]
The fortress of Gezer falls to the Hasmoneans.[72]
Simon Thassi appointed "High Priest and Leader forever" in 170 SE. He takes the title of ethnarch (prince, governor) of Judea in addition to the High Priesthood.[14]
141–100 BCE
The three Jewish sects described by Josephus—the Sadducees, Pharisees, and Essenes—develop their ideologies and become well-formed.[73]
According to Valerius Maximus, Cornelius Scipio Hispanus expels Jews from the city of Rome on the charge of being astrologers and overturns their "private altars". Either the expulsion was not complete, Jews quickly return, or both, however.[74]
c. 138 BCE
A Seleucid army under a commander named Cendebeus invades Judea, but is repulsed.[72]
Antiochus VII Sidetes and his army undertakes a siege of Jerusalem. John Hyrcanus capitulates and resumes an alliance after paying a ransom.[75]
131–129 BCE
Under the terms of the alliance, John Hyrcanus leads an army east to fight the Parthians as allies of Antiochus VII.[72]
129 BCE
Death of Antiochus VII Sidetes. Both the Seleucids and Ptolemies are distracted by leadership disputes. John Hyrcanus and his army return to Jerusalem from the campaign in the east.[78]
128–122 BCE
Expansion of the kingdom under John Hyrcanus, largely into Idumea to the south of Judea. Madaba, Adora, and Marisa captured, among others. The Samaritan temple at Mount Gerizim is conquered and destroyed.[79][80]
124–76 BCE
The book 2 Maccabees in its modern form is compiled. (Or, if written earlier, the two introductory letters are appended at this point, due to a reference to 124 BCE in one of the letters.)[81]
Reign of Aristobulus I, said to be the first Hasmonean ruler to take the title basileus (king) in addition to the High Priesthood. Conquest of Iturea by the Hasmonean kingdom.[83]
'War of Scepters': Alexander Jannaeus attempts to take the city Ptolemais Akko. Ptolemy IX Soter II, then ruler of Cyprus, sails to its defense and defeats the Hasmoneans in battle. Wary of a rival for leadership of the Ptolemaic Kingdom gaining a foothold, Cleopatra III also invades. Jannaeus acknowledges Cleopatra's rule of Ptolemais, forms an alliance with her, and Ptolemy IX is forced to retreat.[85]
3 Maccabees is written, either in late Ptolemaic Egypt or in Roman Egypt.[28]
89–88 BCE
War between Alexander Jannaeus and Demetrius III, possibly both at the invitation of Jannaeus's internal opponents and as a reprisal for Hasmonean incursions on Seleucid territory. Demetrius III eventually retreats to Damascus.[84]
Jannaeus executes his internal opponents and their families who had supported Demetrius III.[84]
86 BCE
An army of King Antiochus XII of the Seleucid Empire passes through Judea on the way to a campaign against the Nabateans (Arabs). Jannaeus orders the construction of a defensive line to deter a Seleucid occupation. Antiochus XII is killed in battle against the Nabateans. Aretas III of Nabatea briefly invades Judea, but comes to terms with Jannaeus.[84]
Split between the sons of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Hyrcanus II initially succeeds to the throne as High Priest, but Aristobulus II gains the support of the Hasmonean army and contests his brother for leadership. Hyrcanus II at first accepts a powerless ceremonial position, and later flees into exile at the advice of Antipater the Idumaean where he gains the support of Aretas III of Nabatea. Both brothers appeal to the Roman Republic to settle the dispute.[87][88]
Spring – Summer 63 BCE
Siege of Jerusalem: Pompey conquers Jerusalem from Aristobulus II's followers and enters the Temple. The Hasmonean kingdom becomes a client state of Rome, with Hyrcanus II restored as high priest.[87]
63–40 BCE
Tenure of Hyrcanus II as High Priest, although not as basileus.[89]
Aristobulus and his son Antigonus II Mattathias escape from being held hostage in Rome, reunite with Aristobulus's son Alexander, and resume an anti-Roman rebellion. They are defeated and captured again. Aristobulus's son Alexander is released in a peace deal, revolts again, and is defeated again.[92]
c. 54–53 BCE
Crassus, as Roman governor of Syria and Judea, loots the Second Temple for money to help pay for an ill-advised expedition against the Parthian Empire.[92]
48 BCE
After Pompey's death during Caesar's civil war, Hyrcanus II is raised to the position of ethnarch (governor) in addition to the high priesthood as a reward for siding with Julius Caesar.[93]
43–42 BCE
Civil unrest: Antipater is poisoned by a rival named Malichus and dies. Antipater's son Herod executes Malichus, but faces revolts led by Antigonus II, son of Aristobulus II. Herod and his elder brother Phasael defeat these attempts.[94]
Herod, in exile in Rome, is declared king by the Roman Senate.[95]
40–37 BCE
Reign of Antigonus II Mattathias as puppet king of the Parthians. His reign is consumed by a losing war against Romans under Mark Antony and Herod's armies.[95]
Summer 37 BCE
Jerusalem is retaken and Antigonus II is executed. Herod the Great, given the kingship of Judea earlier by the Roman Senate, now takes control.[95]
Battle of Actium: Octavian defeats the alliance of Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra's Ptolemaic Egypt in the Roman Civil War. Ptolemaic Egypt is absorbed into Octavian's victorious side to become Roman Egypt.[96]
Hyrcanus II, who had been allowed to live by Herod previously, is now executed by Herod, presumably as a threat to his leadership.[88]
Herod, an ally of Mark Antony, pledges his loyalty to Octavian and continues in his kingship of Judea.[97]
Herod gains influence over Batanaea to the east. As exilic Jews in Babylonia traveled through the area when coming to Judea for trade or pilgrimage, he establishes a Jewish settlement there to protect traders from brigands.[101]
Death of Salome I at some point during the term of Marcus Ambivulus (9–12); her territory around Jamnia is incorporated into the Roman province of Judea.[105]
Emperor Tiberius expels (some? all? non-citizen?) Jews from Rome, although accounts differ as to what precisely happened and how significant it was.[107][108]
20–54
The book 4 Maccabees is estimated to have been written, although other scholars suggest an even later date.[109]
The rulers Helena of Adiabene, her son Izates, and some number of their subjects convert to Judaism in Adiabene, a Parthian client kingdom. Helena makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem around 46 or 47 and seems to stay for some time.[113]
34
Death of the tetrarch Philip. His territory is at first given to the Syrian legate, and soon after to Agrippa I.[114]
c. 35–37
Term of Vitellius as governor of Syria. Jews complain to him, and he takes several steps popular among Jews: He grants the Jews custody over the High Priest's vestments, he dismisses Pilate and sends him back to Rome, and remits certain taxes on Jerusalem.[115]
Caligula grants Agrippa I the title of king and the tetrarchy of Philip and Lysanius.[106]
38
Herod Antipas makes an attempt to be given the rank of king himself, fails, and is exiled. His territory in Galilee is given to his rival, Agrippa I.[117]
c. 40–41
There is an attempt to place a statue of Caligula in the Second Temple. The governor of Syria, Petronius, stalls, and Agrippa I intervenes; the plan is quashed.[118][119]
41
Emperor Caligula is assassinated. Agrippa aids in Claudius's elevation to the throne; Claudius rewards him by expanding his kingdom to include Judea and Samaria.[120]
After riots in Alexandria between Jews and Greeks, Claudius issues an edict affirming the right of Jews to keep their religion, and directing both parties to maintain the peace. The edict is soon expanded to the Roman world at large, affirming Jewish privileges to maintain their own separate worship.[121]
At some point in Claudius's reign, an expulsion of Jews from Rome occurs, or possibly an expulsion of Jewish Christians. Details are highly uncertain. As Claudius supported the Jews in other aspects, it is generally thought that this edict was limited in scope and sought the preservation of civic peace, rather than anti-Jewish sentiment.[121][112]
44
Death of Agrippa I. Judea reverts to being a Roman province under direct rule, with Fadus dispatched as governor.[120]
Agrippa II, Agrippa's son, is appointed ruler of Chalcis in Iturea after its previous ruler's death. He is also given responsibility over the Temple and the High Priesthood in Jerusalem.[124]
52–59
Term of Antonius Felix as procurator of Judea. His rule is widely condemned in ancient sources, both non-Jewish and Jewish, for its corruption.[125]
53–66
Agrippa II is given the territory of the former tetrarchy of his great-uncle Philip to rule, in exchange for giving up Chalcis.[124]
Gessius Florus's term as procurator of Judea. Josephus blames him for deliberately provoking a revolt to cover up his corruption and crimes; while likely exaggerated, Florus does appear to have enriched himself using his office, leading to Jewish anger.[127]
King Agrippa II unsuccessfully appeals for peace; he is expelled from Jerusalem. He appeals to Emperor Nero for aid. Jerusalem is split between a peace party and a war party.[129]
The radical Sicarii capture the fortress of Masada and execute the Roman garrison. In July / August, they capture Antonia Fortress, execute the garrison, and set the fort ablaze. [129]
War party takes control of Jerusalem and slaughters the Roman garrison despite it being the Sabbath and a promise of free passage after their surrender.[129]
In the wider Eastern Mediterranean region, a cycle of violence begins, as nervous non-Jews and Jews instigate massacres of the other, fearful of the consequences of the other side gaining control.[129]
Cestius Gallus, governor of Syria, campaigns against the rebellion. He besieges Jerusalem in October, but breaks off the siege and withdraws.[129]
Jewish rebels attempt to take Ascalon, but are defeated by Roman cavalry in the field.[131]
67
Galilee campaign: Roman legions under General Vespasian and Titus subdue Galilee and northern regions. One of the captured Jewish leaders is Josephus, who will later become a court historian.[131]
68
Zealot Temple siege: The Zealots and allied Idumeans overthrow the provisional government in Jerusalem and take over leadership of the revolt.[132]
69
Year of the Four Emperors: Unrest and civil war in the Roman Empire as Emperor Galba is replaced by Otho, who is replaced by Vitellius. Vespasian, on campaign in Judea, is declared Emperor by his troops and supporters. His allies defeat Vitellius, making Vespasian Emperor.[133]
Some of the Idumeans leave Jerusalem and abandon the Zealots.[132]
May–August 70
Siege of Jerusalem: Four legions of Roman troops under Titus besiege the city. Infighting between Jewish factions continues, and food supplies run low or are destroyed. Much of Jerusalem is destroyed by fire. The Second Temple is destroyed. Many residents perish, with surviving Jews enslaved.[134]
70–73
Romans under Lucilius Bassus besiege and occupy remaining Jewish holdouts. Herodium is taken; Machaerus surrenders and its defenders leave honorably, but the local townspeople are killed or enslaved; and Jewish refugees in the forest of Jades (location uncertain) are slain. The Siege of Masada overwhelms the final pocket of Jewish resistance.[135]
Oniad Temple at Leontopolis in Egypt closes and is dismantled on Vespasian's orders, to prevent it from becoming a new center of Jewish worship.[136]
Aftermath
70–130
Yohanan ben Zakkai is given permission by Romans to relocate to Yavneh and founds a Jewish academy there in 70 CE. The academy's work becomes the basis for what is eventually known as rabbinic Judaism. The sages active in the first and second century are later known as the Tannaim.[137][138]
Council of Jamnia is held in the late 1st century. While the Jewish canon was probably not finalized here, it is often considered the beginning of the standardization of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible).[137]
115–117
Kitos War: Jewish rebellions erupt in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Egypt, and Mesopotamia during the reign of Emperor Trajan. They are suppressed, seemingly with extreme loss of life.[139]
132–136
Bar Kokhba revolt: Jews in Judea once again rise in revolt, this time under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba. The revolt is defeated, and Jews are banned from living in Jerusalem.[140]
^There is an alternative school of thought that moves up most events in the Maccabean Revolt by a year in the Julian calendar — so the Abomination of Desolation is 168, the Temple cult resumes in 165, Judas dies at Elasa in 161, etc. This is due to conflicting interpretations of Seleucid era dates, which used a different starting count in Babylonia and Judea than in Macedonia and Egypt. This article largely uses Bickerman's 1937 revision as the scholarly standard, but see Grabbe 2020, pp. 14–36 as an example of a stance that prefers the older view.
^Schwartz, Seth (2001). Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. p. 28. ISBN0-691-08850-0.
^Hadas, Moses (1953). The Third and Fourth Books of Maccabees. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 1–4, 16–19. LCCN53-5114.
^ abJohnson, Sara Raup (2004). Historical Fictions and Hellenistic Jewish Identity: Third Maccabees in Its Cultural Context. University of California Press. ISBN9780520233072. JSTOR10.1525/j.ctt1ppghn.
^Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics 219 to 161 B.C.E. Leiden: Brill. pp. 129–132. ISBN90-04-09441-5. See also Schwartz 2008, pp. 210–212, 238
^Schwartz, Daniel R. (2001). "Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Jerusalem". Historical Perspectives: From the Hasmoneans to Bar Kokhba in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 45–57. ISBN90-04-12007-6.
^Portier-Young, Anathea (2011). Apocalypse Against Empire: Theologies of Resistance in Early Judaism. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 314–319, 346–352. ISBN9780802870834.
^Goldstein, Jonathan A. (1983). II Maccabees: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible Series. Vol. 41A. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN0-385-04864-5.
^ abEerdman Publishing. (2000). Eerdman’s Dictionary of the Bible, page 249. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN90-5356-503-5.
^ abSanders, E. P. (2015). Paul: The Apostle's Life, Letters, and Thought. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. pp. 3–19, 158–160, 694. ISBN978-0-80-062956-4.
^Brown, Raymond Edward (1997). An Introduction to the New Testament. Doubleday. Chapter 16: General Issue's in Paul's Life and Thought. ISBN978-0-385-24767-2. Note that an alternative line of scholarship by Gerd Lüdemann and others argues Paul's travels started earlier, in the late 30s CE; see Sanders 2015 as an example finding the earlier dates more plausible.
Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (1989). Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521323525.
Bickerman, Elias (1979) [1937]. The God of the Maccabees: Studies on the Meaning and Origin of the Maccabean Revolt. Translated by Moehring, Horst R. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN90-04-05947-4.
Mendels, Doron (1987). The Land of Israel as a Political Concept in Hasmonean Literature. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr. ISBN3-16-145147-3.
Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of Judah. Library of Second Temple Studies 47. Vol. 1. T&T Clark. ISBN0-5670-8998-3.
Grabbe, Lester L. (2008). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335–175 BCE). Library of Second Temple Studies 68. Vol. 2. T&T Clark. ISBN978-0-567-03396-3.
Grabbe, Lester L. (2020). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Maccabean Revolt, Hasmonaean Rule, and Herod the Great (174–4 BCE). Library of Second Temple Studies 95. Vol. 3. T&T Clark. ISBN978-0-5676-9294-8.
Grabbe, Lester L. (2021). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Jews Under the Roman Shadow (4 BCE–150 CE). Library of Second Temple Studies 99. Vol. 4. T&T Clark. ISBN978-0-5677-0070-4.
Grainger, John D. (2012). The Wars of the Maccabees. Casemate Publishers. ISBN9781781599464.