In 2011, the region had an estimated population of 250,000. The lingua franca of Bougainville is Tok Pisin, while a variety of Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are also spoken. The region includes several Polynesian outliers where Polynesian languages are spoken. Geographically the islands of Bougainville and Buka form part of the Solomon Islands archipelago, but are politically separate from the independent country of Solomon Islands. Historically, Bougainville and Buka, together with the islands of Choiseul, Santa Isabel, the Shortlands and Ontong Java, which are all now part of the country of Solomon Islands, formed the German Solomon Islands Protectorate, the geographical area later being referred to as the North Solomon Islands.
Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years. During the colonial period the region was occupied and administered by the Germans, Australians, Japanese, and Americans for various periods. The name of the region originates from French admiral Louis Antoine de Bougainville,[7] who reached it in 1768.
Bougainvillean separatism dates to the 1960s, and the Republic of the North Solomons was declared shortly before the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975; it was subsumed into Papua New Guinea the following year. Conflict over the Panguna mine became the primary trigger for the Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998), which resulted in the deaths of up to 20,000 people. A peace agreement resulted in the creation of the Autonomous Bougainville Government.
In late 2019, a non-binding independence referendum was held with 98.31% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As a result, the regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027, pending ratification by the Papua New Guinean government. If ratified, the capital may relocate from Buka back to the previous location of Arawa.[8][9][10]
Replica of a traditional stake-house built by men from Toboroi, Bougainville Island
Prehistory
Bougainville has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years, according to evidence obtained from Kilu Cave on Buka Island.[11] Until about 10,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum, there was a single island referred to as "Greater Bougainville" that spanned from the northern tip of Buka Island to the Nggela Islands north of Guadalcanal.[12]
The first inhabitants of Bougainville were Australo-Melanesians who presumably arrived from the Bismarck Archipelago.[13] Around 3,000 years ago, Austronesian peoples brought the Lapita culture to the islands,[14] introducing pottery, agriculture, and domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, and chickens.[15] Both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are spoken on the islands to this day, however there has been significant mixing between the populations to the point that cultural and genetic differences are no longer correlated with language.[16]
Colonial history
Australian soldiers hoisting the Union Jack at Kieta, Bougainville, following their capture of German New Guinea in 1914
The German Empire, which had already begun operations in New Guinea, annexed present-day Bougainville in 1886, after agreeing with the United Kingdom to divide the Solomon Islands archipelago between them.[17] A German protectorate over the northern islands was established later that year, but the British Solomon Islands Protectorate was not established until 1893.[18] The initial boundary between the two territories was much more southerly, with Choiseul Island, Santa Isabel Island, Ontong Java, the Shortland Islands, and part of the Florida Islands included in the German section. The current boundary between PNG and Solomon Islands is derived from the Tripartite Convention of 1899, which saw those islands ceded to the United Kingdom.[19]
The German Solomon Islands were administered through German New Guinea, although it took almost two decades for an administrative presence to be established. The German administrative station at Kieta, established in 1905, was preceded by a Marist mission, which succeeded in converting a majority of the islanders to Catholicism.[20] The first fully commercial plantation was established in 1908, but German annexation had little economic impact.[21]
In 1942, Bougainville was invaded by the Japanese in order to provide a support base for the operations elsewhere in the South-West Pacific. The Allied counter-invasion resulted in heavy casualties, beginning in 1943, with full control of the islands not re-established until 1945. After the war the Australian government incorporated Bougainville and the rest of the mandate into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, the immediate predecessor of present-day Papua New Guinea.[citation needed]
Modern history
Papua New Guinea gained its independence from Australia in 1975. As Bougainville is rich in copper and gold, a large mine had been established at Panguna in the early 1970s by Bougainville Copper Limited, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto. Disputes by regional residents with the company over adverse environmental impacts, failure to share financial benefits, and negative social changes brought by the mine resulted in a local revival for a secessionist movement that had been dormant. Activists proclaimed the independence of Bougainville (Republic of North Solomons) in 1975 and in 1990, but both times government forces suppressed the separatists.[citation needed]
In 1988, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) increased their activity significantly. Prime Minister Sir Rabbie Namaliu ordered the Papua New Guinea Defense Force (PNGDF) to put down the rebellion, and the conflict escalated into a civil war. The PNGDF retreated from permanent positions on Bougainville in 1990, but continued military action. The conflict involved pro-independence and loyalist Bougainvillean groups as well as the PNGDF. The war claimed an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 lives.[24][25]
The Bougainville conflict ended in 1997 after negotiations brokered by New Zealand. In 2000, A peace agreement was completed and, together with disarmament, provided for the establishment of an Autonomous Bougainville Government. The parties agreed to have a referendum in the future on whether the island should become politically independent.[26]
On 25 July 2005, rebel leader Francis Ona died after a short illness. A former surveyor with Bougainville Copper, Ona was a key figure in the secessionist conflict and had refused to formally join the island's peace process.[citation needed]
In 2015, Australia announced it would establish a diplomatic post in Bougainville for the first time.[27] In 2016, it cancelled those plans acknowledging that it had not obtained the PNG government's approval.[28]
Independence referendum
In 2019, a non-binding independence referendum was held with 98.31% voting for independence rather than continued autonomy within Papua New Guinea. As a result, the regional authorities intend to become independent between 2025 and 2027.[8]
Geography
The Bougainville region occupies the north of the Solomon archipelago with Bougainville Island, which is the largest island of this group. The border between Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands lies just south in the middle of a 9 km (5.6 mi) strait that separates it from the Shortland Islands. The Solomon Island of Choiseul is 30 km (19 mi) further south.[citation needed]
The island of Buka is north of Bougainville, separated by a narrow strait. The region includes other more or less remote islands and atolls:
Elections for the first autonomous government were held in May and June 2005; Joseph Kabui, an independence leader, was elected president. He died in office on 6 June 2008. After interim elections to fill the remainder of his term, John Momis was elected as president in 2010 for a five-year term. He supports autonomy within a relationship with the national government of Papua New Guinea.[citation needed]
The Constitution of Bougainville specifies that the Autonomous Bougainville Government shall consist of three branches:[6]
Judicial: the Bougainville Courts including a Supreme Court and High Court.
The capital city is Buka, which became the centre of government after Arawa was damaged during the Bougainville Civil War. The status of Buka is considered temporary, and the government is deciding on the location of a permanent capital.[29]
PresidentJohn Momis confirmed that Bougainville would hold a non-binding independence referendum in 2019.[30] The governments of both Bougainville and Papua New Guinea held a two-week referendum period which began on 23 November 2019 and closed on 7 December 2019, which is the final step in the Bougainville Peace Agreement.[31] The referendum question was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea, or full independence. Over 98% of the valid ballots were cast for independence.[32][33]
Ishmael Toroama, a former rebel leader, was elected president of Bougainville on 23 September 2020.[34]
Negotiations between Papua New Guinea and Bougainville began on 17 May 2021.[35] While Toroama stated a desire to see Bougainville become independent by June 2025, Papua New Guinea Prime Minister James Marape cautioned against setting a specific timetable.[36][37] On 7 July 2021, it was announced that Bougainville will become independent by the end of 2027 pending approval of the PNG parliament.[8][38][9][10]
Districts and Local Level Government Areas
District map of the Autonomous Region of BougainvilleMap of the vicinity of Bougainville Island
The region is divided into three districts, which are further divided into Local Level Government (LLGs) areas. For census purposes, the LLGAs are subdivided into wards, and those into census units.[39]
The great majority of Bougainville residents are Christian, with an estimated 70% being Roman Catholic and a substantial minority being of the Protestant United Church of Papua New Guinea since 1968. The Catholic Church has its own diocese in the region (Diocese of Bougainville or Dioecesis Buganvillensis).[40] The cathedral and main church is dedicated to Our Lady of the Assumption, and can be found on Buka Island. It was formerly the Church of St. Michael the Archangel in the former mission of Tubiana. There are a total of 33 Catholic parishes and one mission in the region.[41]
Languages
Bougainville's constitution, written in English, does not specify an official language, but calls for constitutional literature to be translated into Tok Pisin and as many local languages as possible, while also encouraging the "development, preservation, and enrichment of all Bougainville languages".[6]
The most widely spoken Austronesian language is Halia and its dialects, spoken in the island of Buka and the Selau peninsula of Northern Bougainville. Other Austronesian languages include Nehan, Petats, Solos, Saposa (Taiof), Hahon and Tinputz, all spoken in the northern quarter of Bougainville, Buka and surrounding islands. These languages are closely related. Bannoni and Torau are Austronesian languages not closely related to the former, which are spoken in the coastal areas of central and south Bougainville. On the nearby Takuu Atoll a Polynesian language is spoken, Takuu.[42]
A small percentage of the region's economy is from mining. The majority of economic growth comes from agriculture and aquaculture. The region's biodiversity, which is one of the most important in Oceania, is heavily threatened by mining activities. Mining activities have caused civil unrest in the region many[quantify] times.[when?] In January 2018, a moratorium on one mine was imposed by the Papua New Guinea government, in a bid to calm civil unrest against mining in the region.[43]
Bougainville had one of the world's largest open-pit copper mines, the Pangunamine, from 1972 to 1989, which for many years generated a large part of Papua New Guinea's gross national product. The mine was operated by the Australian company Bougainville Copper (BLC), a subsidiary of the British-Australian mining company Rio Tinto/CRA, which had majority control of the company. The state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) holds a 19.1% stake in Bougainville Copper.[citation needed]
As a result of the civil war and the rebel-forced closure of the mine, Papua New Guinea's government revenues fell by 20%. Some hope for the eventual reopening of the Panguna mine. Negotiations to reopen the Panguna mine began in early March 2006 with talks between former PNG Mines Minister Sam Akoitai and the Rio Tinto corporation in London. Some representatives of landowners in the Panguna area have repeatedly agreed to resume mining operations, albeit in conjunction with demands for large compensation payments from the mine operator BCL.[citation needed]
Yields from the two main exports, cocoa and copra, returned to pre-civil war levels in 2007. Largely operated by Europeans, Asians, churches and corporations, large-scale commercial plantations, which were responsible for a significant share of production before the civil war, are now used by smaller local operators. Further processing is done by small cocoa dryers promoted by AusAid.[citation needed]
Bougainville Region is the most productive in all of PNG for cocoa.[44] Omuru et al., 2001 find households farming cacao (Theobroma cacao) average an income of US$215/year.[44] The Cocoa Pod Borer (Conopomorpha cramerella) was considered a large risk for invasion here due to its invasion of nearby areas of Southeast Asia[45] including East New Britain.[46] There was great interest in modelling and phytosanitation practices to forestall its introduction.[45] Unfortunately CPB did arrive here and in 2011 the World Bank's Productive Partnerships in Agriculture Project was created to help farmers control the insect.[46] From the 2009 production level, bean tonnage fell by over 41% by 2014 (although this also includes trees aging out).[47] The Tinputz area – including Namatoa – had been the highest-producing part of the region and has seen many farms be abandoned and return to jungle.[47] PPAP hopes to revive the industry around Namatoa.[47]Cryptolaemus sinestria is a mealybug of cacao trees here, observed at a Buka agricultural station.[48]
Men from Soraken wearing upe, a headdress representing the transition to adulthood which later became a national symbol of Bougainville
National symbols
A law passed by the provincial assembly – the Bougainville Flag, Emblem and Anthem (Protection) Act 2018 – affirmed the existing official status of the flag of Bougainville and emblem of Bougainville. Both the flag and emblem feature stylised depictions of the upe, a traditional headdress worn by men in parts of Bougainville to symbolise their transition to adulthood. The law also established "My Bougainville" as the region's anthem.[50][51]
^Spriggs, Matthew (2005). "Bougainville's early history: an archaeological perspective". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.). Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 1. ISBN9781740761383.
^Sack, Peter (2005). "German Colonial Rule in the Northern Solomons". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.). Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 77. ISBN9781740761383.
^Griffin, James (2005). "Origins of Bougainville's Boundaries". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.). Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 74. ISBN9781740761383.
^Elder, Peter (2005). "Between the Waitman's Wars: 1914–42". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.). Bougainville Before the Conflict. Stranger Journalism. p. 146. ISBN9781740761383.
^Booth, R. G.; Pope, R. D. (1986). "A review of the genus Cryptolaemus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) with particular reference to the species resembling C. montrouzieri Mulsant". Bulletin of Entomological Research. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 76 (4): 701–717. doi:10.1017/s0007485300015194. ISSN0007-4853.
^ abcdGray, B. (20 August 1968). "Forest tree and timber insect pests in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea". Pacific Insects. 10 (2): 301–323. S2CID86282067.
Gillespie, Waratah Rosemarie (2009). Running with Rebels: Behind the Lies in Bougainville's hidden war. Australia: Ginibi Productions. ISBN978-0-646-51047-7.
Oliver, Douglas (1973). Bougainville: A Personal History. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.
Oliver, Douglas (1991). Black Islanders: A Personal Perspective of Bougainville, 1937–1991. Melbourne: Hyland House. Repeats text from previous 1973 reference and updates with summaries of Papua New Guinea press reports on the Bougainville Crisis.((cite book)): CS1 maint: postscript (link)
.svg)
0.595[2]
