((short description|Overview of genocide in a historical context))
((pp-extended|small=yes))
<section begin=lead /><!-- DO NOT REMOVE THIS LINE. It tells four sub-articles what to transclude. -->
((use American English|date=August 2015))
((use dmy dates|date=November 2015))
((genocide))
[[Genocide]] is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group. The term was coined in 1944 by [[Raphael Lemkin]]. It is defined in Article 2 of the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical<!--"ethnical" is quoted from the document; although unusual, it is found in several dictionaries-->, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group's conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."<ref name=CPPCG>((cite web |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm |title=Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide |work=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=12 January 1951 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211121830/http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm |archive-date=11 December 2005)) Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.</ref>

The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the [[United Nations]] and condemned by the civilized world", and it also states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity."<ref name=CPPCG/>

== Definitions of genocide ==
((see also|Genocide definitions))
The debate continues over what legally constitutes [[genocide]]. One definition is any conflict that the [[International Criminal Court]] has so designated. Mohammed Hassan Kakar argues that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator.<ref>((cite book |last=Kakar |first=Mohammed Hassan |url=<!--https://books.google.com/books/about/Afghanistan.html?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&redir_esc=y-->http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=eschol |title=Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 |date=1995 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-5209-1914-3 |pages=213–214 |via=[[Google Books]]))</ref> He prefers the definition from Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, which defines genocide as "a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator."((sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990))

In literature, some scholars have popularly emphasized the role that the [[Soviet Union]] played in excluding political groups from the international definition of genocide, which is contained in the [[Genocide Convention]] of 1948,((sfn|Staub|1989|p=8)) and in particular they have written that [[Joseph Stalin]] may have feared greater international scrutiny of the political killings that occurred in the country, such as the [[Great Purge]];((sfn|Gellately|Kiernan|2003|p=267)) however, this claim is not supported by evidence. The Soviet view was shared and supported by many diverse countries, and they were also in line with [[Raphael Lemkin]]'s original conception,((efn|By 1951, Lemkin was saying that the Soviet Union was the only state that could be indicted for genocide; his concept of genocide, as it was outlined in ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'', covered [[Stalinist]] deportations as genocide by default, and differed from the adopted Genocide Convention in many ways. From a 21st-century perspective, its coverage was very broad, and as a result, it would classify any gross [[human rights]] violation as a genocide, and many events that were deemed genocidal by Lemkin did not amount to genocide. As the [[Cold War]] began, this change was the result of Lemkin's turn to [[anti-communism]] in an attempt to convince the United States to ratify the Genocide Convention.((sfn|Weiss-Wendt|2005)))) and it was originally promoted by the [[World Jewish Congress]].((sfn|Schabas|2009|p=160|ps=: "Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to the inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide."))<section end=lead /><section begin=links /><!-- DO NOT REMOVE THIS LINE. It tells four sub-articles what to transclude. -->

== Genocides before World War I ==
((main|Genocides in history (before World War I)))
Analysis of [[genocide]]s before [[World War I]] is the result of modern studies that apply objectivity and fact, while previous accounts of genocides mostly aimed to emphasize one's own superiority. According to Frank Chalk, [[Helen Fein]], and Kurt Jonassohn, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the marginalized group as a subhuman group; the marginalized group might be labeled a threat that must be eliminated.((sfn|Jones|2006|p=3|ps=: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."))

While the concept of genocide was formulated by Lemkin in the mid-20th century, the expansion of various European colonial powers, such as the British and the Spanish Empires, and the subsequent establishment of [[colonies]] on indigenous territory frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against [[indigenous groups]] in the Americas (including [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazil]], [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay|Paraguay]], and the [[Native American genocide in the United States|United States]]), Australia, Africa, and Asia.((sfn|Jones|2010|p=139)) According to Lemkin, [[colonization]] was in itself "intrinsically genocidal", and he saw this genocide as a two-stage process, the first being the destruction of the indigenous population's way of life. In the second stage, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.((sfn|Moses|2004|p=27))((sfn|Forge|2012|p=77)) According to [[David Maybury-Lewis]], imperial and colonial forms of genocide are enacted in two main ways, either through the deliberate clearing of territories of their original inhabitants to make them exploitable for purposes of resource extraction or colonial settlements, or through enlisting indigenous peoples as [[forced laborers]] in [[colonialist]] or [[imperialist]] projects of resource extraction.((sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=48)) The designation of specific events as genocidal is often controversial.((sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=577–582))

During the 17th century [[Beaver Wars]], the Iroquois destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the Mohicans, Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, and northern Algonquins, with the extreme brutality and exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practised by the Iroquois causing some historians to label these events as acts of genocide.<ref>((cite journal |last1=Blick |first1=Jeremy P. |date=3 August 2010 |title=The Iroquois practice of genocidal warfare (1534‐1787) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520120097215 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=405–429 |doi=10.1080/14623520120097215 |s2cid=71358963 |access-date=9 March 2022))</ref>

== Genocides from World War I through World War II ==
((main|Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)))
In 1915, one year after the outbreak of World War I, the concept of [[crimes against humanity]] was introduced into [[international relations]] for the first time, when the [[Allies of World War I]] sent a letter to the government of the [[Ottoman Empire]], a member of the [[Central Powers]], to protest against the [[late Ottoman genocides]] that were taking place within the empire, among them, the [[Armenian genocide]], the [[Assyrian genocide]], the [[Greek genocide]], and the [[Great Famine of Mount Lebanon]].((sfn|Schabas|2000|pp=16–17)) [[The Holocaust]], the [[Nazi]] genocide of six million [[European Jews]] from 1941 to 1945 during the [[World War II|Second World War]],<ref>((Cite book |last=Landau |first=Ronnie S. |title=The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-85772-843-2 |edition=3rd |pages=3 |language=en))</ref><ref>((Cite book |last=Herf |first=Jeffrey C. |author-link=Jeffrey Herf |url=https://archive.org/details/the-routledge-history-of-antisemitism-1138369446-9781138369443_compress |title=The Routledge History of Antisemitism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-138-36944-3 |editor-last=Weitzman |editor-first=Mark |edition=1st |location=Abingdon and New York |pages=278 |language=en |chapter=The Long Term and the Short Term: Antisemitism and the Holocaust |doi=10.4324/9780429428616 |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Robert J. |editor-last3=Wald |editor-first3=James))</ref> is the most studied genocide,((sfn|Jongman|1996)) and it is also a prototype of genocide;((sfn|Moses|2010|p=21)) one of the most controversial questions among comparative scholars is the question of the Holocaust's uniqueness, which led to the ((lang|de|[[Historikerstreit]])) in West Germany during the 1980s,((sfn|Stone|2010|pp=206–207)) and whether there exist historical parallels, which critics believe trivializes it.((sfn|Rosenbaum|2001|loc="Foreword")) It is considered to be the "worst case" paradigm of genocide.<ref>((Cite web |last=Rosenbaum |first=Alan S. |title=Philosophical Reflections on Genocide and the Claim About the Uniqueness of the Holocaust |url=https://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Huma/HumaRose.htm |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=www.bu.edu))</ref>

[[Genocide studies]] started as a side [[academic field]] of [[Holocaust studies]], whose researchers associated genocide with the Holocaust and believed that [[Raphael Lemkin]]'s [[definition of genocide]] was too broad.((sfn|Moses|2010|p=21)) In 1985, the [[United Nations]]' (UN) [[Whitaker Report (United Nations)|Whitaker Report]] cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 [[Jews]] in more than 2,000 [[pogroms during the Russian Civil War|pogroms]] which occurred as part of the [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]] during the [[Russian Civil War]] as an act of genocide; it also suggested that consideration should be given to [[ecocide]], [[ethnocide]], and [[cultural genocide]].((sfn|Bartrop|Jacobs|2014|p=1106))

== Genocides from 1946 through 1999 ==
((main|Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)))
The [[Genocide Convention]] was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. After the necessary twenty countries became parties to the convention, it came into force as [[international law]] on 12 January 1951;((sfn|Akande|Higgins|Sivakumaran|Webb|2018|p=64)) however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.((sfn|Hoffman|2010|p=260)) During the [[Cold War]] era, mass atrocities were committed by [[Anti-communist mass killings|anti-communist/capitalist regimes]],((sfn|Farid|2005))((sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (1): Capitalist Atrocities")) as well as by [[Mass killings under communist regimes|communist regimes]],((sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (2): Communist Atrocities")) among them the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66]], the [[1971 Bangladesh genocide]], the [[Cambodian genocide]], the [[1984 Sikh genocide]], the [[Guatemalan genocide]] and the [[East Timor genocide]].((sfn|Fein|1993))

The [[Rwandan genocide]] gave an extra impetus to [[genocide studies]] in the 1990s.((sfn|Bloxham|Moses|2010|p=2))

== Genocides after 2000 ==
((main|Genocides in history (21st century)))
[[File:Rwandan Genocide Murambi skulls.jpg|thumb|Skulls of victims of the [[Rwandan genocide]]]]
In ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[David Alton]], [[Helen Clark (British politician)|Helen Clark]], and [[Michael Lapsley]] wrote that the reasons for the [[Rwandan genocide]] and crimes such as the [[Bosnian genocide]] of the [[Yugoslav Wars]] had been analyzed in-depth, and they also stated that [[genocide prevention]] had been extensively discussed. They described the analyses as producing "reams of paper [that] were dedicated to analyzing the past and pledging to heed warning signs and prevent genocide."<ref name="Alton, Clark & Lapsley 2021">((cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Helen |author1-link=Helen Clark (British politician) |last2=Lapsley |first2=Michael |author2-link=Michael Lapsley |last3=Alton |first3=David |author3-link=David Alton |title=The warning signs are there for genocide in Ethiopia – the world must act to prevent it |date=26 November 2021 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127031651/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |archive-date=27 November 2021 |url-status=live))</ref>

A group of 34 [[non-governmental organizations]] and 31 individuals, calling themselves African Citizens, referred to the ''Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide'' report prepared by a panel headed by former Botswana president [[Quett Masire]] for the [[Organisation of African Unity]], which later became the [[African Union]].<ref>((cite web |author1=International panel of eminent personalities |title=Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide |website=[[African Union]] |date=21 January 2004 |url=https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/report-rowanda-genocide.pdf |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415090941/https://www.peaceau.org/uploads/report-rowanda-genocide.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live))</ref> African Citizens highlighted the sentences, commenting: "Indisputably, the most important truth that emerges from our investigation is that the Rwandan genocide could have been prevented by those in the international community who had the position and means to do so. ... The world failed Rwanda. ... [The United Nations] simply did not care enough about Rwanda to intervene appropriately."<ref name="Ogunsakin 2021">((cite web |last1=Mustapha |first1=Ogunsakin |title=Group warns UN over imminent genocide in Ethiopia |website=[[Citizens' Gavel]] |date=26 November 2021 |url=https://thegavel.com.ng/group-warns-un-over-imminent-genocide-in-ethiopia |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211127163856/https://thegavel.com.ng/group-warns-un-over-imminent-genocide-in-ethiopia/ |archive-date=27 November 2021 |url-status=live))</ref> [[Chidi Odinkalu]], former head of the [[National Human Rights Commission (Nigeria)|National Human Rights Commission]] of Nigeria, was among those involved with African Citizens.<ref name="Odinkalu 2021">((cite web |last1=Odinkalu |first1=Chidi |author1-link=Chidi Odinkalu |title=Lessons from Rwanda: dangers of an Ethiopian genocide increase as rebels threaten Addis |website=[[Eritrea Hub]] |date=21 November 2021 |url=https://eritreahub.org/lessons-from-rwanda-dangers-of-an-ethiopian-genocide-increase-as-rebels-threaten-addis |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122014534/https://eritreahub.org/lessons-from-rwanda-dangers-of-an-ethiopian-genocide-increase-as-rebels-threaten-addis |archive-date=22 November 2021 |url-status=live))</ref>

The ongoing [[Amhara genocide]] started in the early 1990s with the implementation of ethnic federalism under the TPLF-led ruling, and events of the [[Tigray War|Northern Ethiopia war]] (Tigray conflict) since 2020 that intensified the violence further with war crimes committed by the Tigray forces in both the Amhara & Afar regions. On 20 November 2021, [[Gregory Stanton#Genocide Watch|Genocide Watch]] called for [[Predictions of a genocide in Ethiopia|genocide in Ethiopia]], predicted in the context of the war in Tigray and also the violence across the Oromia, and the Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) regions that worsened [[Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)|since 2018]].<ref>((cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Eric |last2=Hill |first2=Nat |title=Genocide Emergency: Ethiopia |website=[[Genocide Watch]] |date=20 November 2021 |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123151639/https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |url-status=live))</ref> On 21 November, Odinkalu called for genocide prevention, stating: "We need to focus on an urgent programme of Genocide Prevention advocacy on Ethiopia NOW. It may be too late in 2 weeks, guys."<ref name="Odinkalu 2021"/> On 26 November, African Citizens and Alton, Clark, and Lapsley also called for the predicted genocide to be prevented.<ref name="Alton, Clark & Lapsley 2021"/><ref name="Ogunsakin 2021"/>

The [[Rohingya genocide]] is an ongoing genocide of the [[Islam in Myanmar|Muslim]] [[Rohingya people]] consisting of arson, rape, ethnic cleansing, and infanticide by the [[Tatmadaw|Burmese military]]. The genocide has so far consisted of two phases so: the first was a military crackdown that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017.<ref>((Cite web |date=23 January 2020 |title=World Court Rules Against Myanmar on Rohingya |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/23/world-court-rules-against-myanmar-rohingya |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |language=en))</ref><ref>((Cite web |date=7 December 2017 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en))</ref>

The Chinese government has engaged in a [[Persecution of Uyghurs in China|series of human rights abuses]] against [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic and religious minorities in [[Xinjiang]].<ref>((Cite news|date=8 February 2021|title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215|archive-date=8 February 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210208184814/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215|url-status=live))</ref> Legislatures in several countries, including Canada,<ref>((Cite news|author=Ryan Patrick Jones|date=22 February 2021|title=MPs vote to label China's persecution of Uighurs a genocide|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/uighur-genocide-motion-vote-1.5922711|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|quote=A substantial majority of MPs — including most Liberals who participated — voted in favour of a Conservative motion that says China's actions in its western Xinjiang region meet the definition of genocide set out in the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention. ... The final tally was 266 in favour and zero opposed. Two MPs formally abstained.))</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>((Cite news|last=Hefffer|first=Greg|date=22 April 2021|title=House of Commons declares Uighurs are being subjected to genocide in China|url=https://news.sky.com/story/house-of-commons-declares-uighurs-are-being-subjected-to-genocide-in-china-12283995|website=Sky News))</ref> and France,<ref>((cite news|url=https://www.barrons.com/news/french-parliament-denounces-china-s-uyghur-genocide-01642684207?refsec=afp-news&s=09|work=[[AFP News]]|title=French Parliament Denounces China's Uyghur 'Genocide'|date =20 January 2022))</ref> have passed non-binding motions describing China's actions as genocide. The United States officially denounced China's treatment of Uyghurs as a genocide.<ref>((Cite news |title=U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=19 January 2021 |url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555))</ref>

== International prosecution ==
=== ''Ad hoc'' tribunals ===
In 1951, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the convention, namely [[France]] and the [[Republic of China]]. The treaty was ratified by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1954, the [[United Kingdom]] in 1970, the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1983 (having replaced the [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]]-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the [[United States]] in 1988.((sfn|Bachman|2017|ps=: "However, the US failed to ratify the treaty until November 25, 1988.")) In the 1990s, the [[international law]] on the [[crime of genocide]] began to be enforced.((sfn|Hoffman|2010|p=260))

==== Bosnia and Herzegovina ====
((see also|Bosnian genocide|Srebrenica massacre))
[[File:Srebrenica Massacre - Exhumed Grave of Victims - Potocari 2007.jpg|thumb|Exhumed mass grave of Srebrenica massacre victims in 2007]]
In July 1995, Serbian forces killed more than 8,000<ref>((cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jrsEaRIzFkC&pg=PA81|title=The United Nations |first=Kirsten Nakjavani |last=Bookmiller |year=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1438102993 |page=81 |via=[[Google Books]]))</ref><ref>((cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0J_JZbLElKkC&pg=PA25 |title=Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency |first1=Christopher |last1=Paul |first2=Colin P. |last2=Clarke |first3=Beth |last3=Grill |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-0833050786 |page=25 |via=[[Google Books]]))</ref><ref>((cite news |title = Mladic Arrives in The Hague |date=31 May 2011 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html |first=Marlise |last=Simons))</ref> [[Bosniaks]] (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, both in and around the town of [[Srebrenica]] during the [[Bosnian War]].<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php|title=Srebrenica-Potočari: spomen obilježje i mezarje za žrtve genocida iz 1995 godine. Liste žrtava prema prezimenu |trans-title=Srebrenica-Potocari: Memorial and Cemetery for the victims of the genocide of 1995. Lists of victims by surname |language=bs |date=1995 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418221608/http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php |archive-date=18 April 2014))</ref><ref>((cite web |title=ICTY: The Conflicts |publisher=[[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] |access-date=5 August 2013 |url=http://www.icty.org/sid/322))</ref> The killing was perpetrated by units of the [[Army of Republika Srpska]] (VRS) [[command responsibility|which were under the command]] of General [[Ratko Mladić]]. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the [[mass murder]] as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War.<ref name="UN SecGen 10th anniv">[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm UN Press Release SG/SM/9993UN, 11/07/2005 "Secretary-General Kofi Annan's message to the ceremony marking the tenth anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre in Potocari-Srebrenica"]. Retrieved 9 August 2010.</ref><ref name="iwpr.net">((cite web |author=Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Tribunal Update: Briefly Noted (TU No 398, 18 March 2005) | title=Institute for War & Peace Reporting - IWPR |url=http://www.iwpr.net/?p=tri&s=f&o=235656&apc_state=henitri2005))</ref> A paramilitary unit from [[Republic of Serbia (1990–2006)|Serbia]] known as the [[Scorpions (paramilitary)|Scorpions]], officially a part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre,<ref name="Williams">((cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |title=Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=26 May 2011 |first=Daniel |last=Williams))</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">((cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |title=ICTY – Kordic and Cerkez Judgement – 3. After the Conflict |access-date=11 July 2012))</ref> along with several hundred Russian and [[Greek Volunteer Guard|Greek]] volunteers.<ref>((cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS1vHuAgcZgC&pg=PA3 |title=Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity |first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |year=2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1412812047 |page=3 |via=[[Google Books]]))</ref><ref>((cite news |title=Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre |date=5 January 2013 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes))</ref>

In 2001, the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) delivered its first conviction for the crime of genocide, against General [[Radislav Krstić|Krstić]] for his role in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found not guilty of genocide but was instead found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide).<ref>The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] found in [https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)] that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for the name of the group in English on whom the genocide was committed). The judgement was upheld in ''[https://archive.today/20120529184845/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)]''</ref>

In February 2007, the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) returned a judgment in the [[Bosnian Genocide Case]]. It upheld the ICTY's findings that genocide had been committed in and around Srebrenica but did not find that genocide had been committed on the wider territory of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] during the war. The ICJ also ruled that [[Serbia]] was not responsible for the genocide nor was it responsible for "aiding and abetting it", although it ruled that Serbia could have done more to prevent the genocide and that Serbia failed to punish the perpetrators.<ref>((cite news |first=Arthur |last=Max |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/02/26/international/i033600S38.DTL&type=politics |title=Court: Serbia failed to prevent genocide |publisher=[[The San Francisco Chronicle]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=26 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810091849/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2007%2F02%2F26%2Finternational%2Fi033600S38.DTL&type=politics |archive-date=10 August 2007 |df=dmy))</ref> Before this ruling, the term [[Bosnian Genocide]] had been used by some academics<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |title=HNPG 036P (or 033T) History: Bosnian Genocide In the Historical Perspective |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516181854/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |archive-date=16 May 2007 |df=dmy))</ref><ref>((cite web |url=https://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |title=Winter 2007 Honors Courses |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810134723/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |archive-date=10 August 2007 |df=dmy))</ref><ref>((cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |title=Winter 2008 Honors Courses |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029073204/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |archive-date=29 October 2007 |df=dmy))</ref> and human rights officials.<ref>((cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges |title=Milosevic to Face Bosnian Genocide Charges |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=11 December 2001 |access-date=10 April 2016))</ref>

In 2010, [[Vujadin Popović]], [[Lieutenant Colonel]] and the Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the [[Bosnian Serb Army]], and [[Ljubiša Beara]], [[Colonel]] and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the ICTY for their role in the Srebrenica massacre and were each sentenced to life in prison.<ref>((Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |title=Seven convicted over 1995 Srebrenica massacre |publisher=CNN |date=10 June 2010))</ref><ref>((Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10283403 |title=Life for Bosnian Serbs over genocide at Srebrenica |work=BBC News |date=10 June 2010))</ref><ref>((Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article7147500.ece |title=Hague court sentences Bosnian Serbs to life for Srebrenica genocide |work=Times Online |date=10 June 2010 |location=London |first=David |last=Charter))</ref><ref>((Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bosnian Serbs convicted of genocide over Srebrenica massacre |work=The Telegraph |date=10 June 2010 |location=London |first=Bruno |last=Waterfield))((cbignore))</ref> In 2016 and 2017, [[Radovan Karadžić]]<ref>((cite news |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 March 2016 |title=Radovan Karadzic sentenced to 40-year imprisonment for Srebrenica genocide, war crimes |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece))</ref> and Ratko Mladić were sentenced for genocide.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58143#.WhadpdLiXIU |title=UN hails conviction of Mladic, the 'epitome of evil,' a momentous victory for justice |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=[[UN News Centre]] |access-date=23 November 2017))</ref>

German courts handed down convictions for genocide during the Bosnian War. [[Novislav Djajic]] was indicted for his participation in the genocide, but the Higher Regional Court failed to find that there was sufficient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was found guilty of 14 counts of murder and one count of attempted murder.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |title=Novislav Djajic |work=Trial Watch |date=19 June 2013 |access-date=15 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214040321/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |archive-date=14 February 2016|df=dmy-all))</ref> At Djajic's appeal on 23 May 1997, the [[Bavaria]]n Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, confined within the administrative district of [[Foča|Foca]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)], The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], paragraph 589. citing Bavarian Appeals Court, ''Novislav Djajic'' case, 23 May 1997, 3 St 20/96, section VI, p.&nbsp;24 of the English translation.</ref> The Higher Regional Court (((lang|de|[[Oberlandesgericht]]))) of Düsseldorf, in September 1997, handed down a genocide conviction against [[Nikola Jorgic]], a [[Bosnian Serb]] from the [[Doboj]] region who was the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj region. He was sentenced to four terms of [[life imprisonment]] for his involvement in genocidal actions that took place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than Srebrenica.<ref name=Jorgic>Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, "Public Prosecutor v Jorgic", 26 September 1997 (Trial Watch) ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Nikola Jorgic] ((webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224162507/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=24 February 2014 ))''</ref> On 29 November 1999, the Higher Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Düsseldorf "condemned [[Maksim Sokolovic]] to 9 years in prison for aiding and abetting the crime of genocide and for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions."<ref>Trial watch ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Maksim Sokolovic] ((webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706082940/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=6 July 2015))''</ref>

==== Rwanda ====
The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offences committed during the [[Rwandan genocide]] during April and May 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to resolve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. For approximately 100 days from the assassination of President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] on 6 April through mid-July, at least 800,000 people were killed according to a [[Human Rights Watch]] estimate.<ref>((cite web |last=Des Forges |first=Alison |date=1999 |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/12/rwanda-leave-none-to-tell-the-story.pdf|title='Leave None to Tell the Story' |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=6 November 2022))</ref><ref>((cite web |date=20 November 2014 |title=Joseph Sebarenzi Shares his Perspective on the Genocide in Rwanda in Two Lectures |url=https://humanities.byu.edu/joseph-sebarenzi-shares-his-perspective-on-the-genocide-in-rwanda-in-two-lectures/ |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=BYU Humanities |publisher=BYU College of Humanities))</ref><ref>((cite web |last=Maron |first=Jeremy |date=2022 |title=What led to the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda? |url=https://humanrights.ca/story/what-led-genocide-against-tutsi-rwanda |access-date=6 November 2022 |publisher=Canadian Museum for Human Rights))</ref>

As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while one ([[Bernard Munyagishari]]) is awaiting trial; nine remain at large.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |publisher=ICTR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813085127/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=13 August 2011))</ref> The first trial, of [[Jean Akayesu|Jean-Paul Akayesu]], ended in 1998 with his conviction for genocide and crimes against humanity.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/18/default.aspx?id=4&mnid=4 |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |work=[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|ICRT]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202141407/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=2 December 2012))</ref> [[Jean Kambanda]], the interim prime minister during the genocide, pleaded guilty. This was the world's first conviction for genocide, as defined by the 1948 Convention.<ref>((cite web |date=5 April 2021|title=Rwanda: The First Conviction for Genocide |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/rwanda-the-first-conviction-for-genocide |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]]))</ref>

==== Cambodia ====
((see also|Autogenocide|Cambodian genocide|Cambodian genocide denial|Killing Fields|Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum))
[[File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg|thumb|Skulls at the [[Choeung Ek]] memorial in Cambodia]]
The [[Khmer Rouge]], led by [[Pol Pot]], [[Ta Mok]], and others, perpetrated the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese or Sino-Khmers, Chams, and Thais, former civil servants, former government soldiers, Buddhist monks, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres who were defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in purges. Man-made famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds of thousands of deaths.<ref name="Sliwinski1995">((cite book |first=Marek |last=Sliwinski |title=Le génocide khmer rouge: une analyze démographique |language=fr |trans-title=The Khmer Rouge Genocide: A Demographic Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4RAunnjWRsC |year=1995 |publisher=Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7384-3525-5 |pages=82 |via=[[Google Books]]))</ref> Craig Etcheson suggested that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5&nbsp;million, with a most likely figure of 2.2&nbsp;million. After spending five years excavating 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution."<ref>((cite web |last=Sharp |first=Bruce |title=Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia |date=1 April 2005 |url=http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm |website=Mekong.Net |publisher=Mekong Network |access-date=13 January 2013))</ref> [[Steven Rosefielde]] argued that the Khmer Rouge were not racist by claiming that they did not intend to exterminate ethnic minorities, and he also stated that the Khmer Rouge did not intend to exterminate the Cambodian people as a whole; in his view, the Khmer Rouge's brutality was the product of an extreme version of communist ideology.<ref>((cite book |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Red Holocaust |title-link=Red Holocaust (2009 book) |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77757-5 |pages=119))</ref>

On 6 June 2003, the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up the [[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] (ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia]] from 1975 to 1979.<ref>((cite web |url=http://unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 57/228 Khmer Rouge trials B1 |work=[[United Nations General Assembly]] |date=22 May 2003 |access-date=11 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061139/http://www.unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2007))</ref> The judges were sworn in during early July 2006.<ref>((cite news |first=Kevin |last=Doyle |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html |title=Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=26 July 2007 |access-date=13 February 2016))</ref><ref>((cite news |first=Ian |last=MacKinnon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2028421,00.html |title=Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116020356/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C%2C2028421%2C00.html |archive-date=16 November 2007 |df=dmy))</ref><ref>((cite web |url=http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |title=The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force |work=[[Royal Cambodian Government]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403182720/http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |archive-date=3 April 2005))</ref>

The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007.<ref name=Buncombe>((cite news |first=Andrew |last=Buncombe |title=Judge quits Cambodia genocide tribunal |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocide-tribunal-2368644.html |location=London |date=11 October 2011))</ref> [[File:KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg|thumb|Khieu Samphan at a public hearing before the pre-trial [[Cambodia Tribunal]] on 3 July 2009]]
* [[Kang Kek Iew]] was formally charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity and detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008.<ref name="ap-munthit-2008-08-12">((Cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm |title=Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer |first=Ker |last=Munthit |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=12 August 2008 |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref> His appeal was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |title=Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref>
* [[Nuon Chea]], a former prime minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002">((cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517092819/http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 May 2011 |title=Case 002 |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref><ref name="Case-002 closing-order">((cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |title=002/19-09-2007: Closing Order |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=15 September 2010 |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders">((cite news |title=UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders |publisher=[[UN News]] |date=16 November 2018 |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981 |access-date=18 November 2018))</ref>
* [[Khieu Samphan]], a former head of state, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders"/>
* [[Ieng Sary]], a former foreign minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> He died in March 2013.
* [[Ieng Thirith]], wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social affairs, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending a health evaluation.<ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/><ref>((cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |title=002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against Trial Chamber's order to release the accused Ieng Thirith |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=13 December 2011 |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref>

Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian government disagreed over whether any other people should be tried by the Tribunal.<ref name=Buncombe/>

=== International Criminal Court ===
((see also|International Criminal Court))
The ICC can only prosecute crimes that were committed on or after 1 July 2002.<ref>((cite web |url=http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm |title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Article 11 |publisher=[[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]] |date=17 July 1999 |access-date=4 June 2017))</ref><ref>((cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About+the+Court |title=ICC: About the court |publisher=[[International Criminal Court|ICC]] |access-date=6 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309082156/http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About%2Bthe%2BCourt |archive-date=9 March 2010))</ref>

==== Darfur, Sudan ====
((see also|Darfur genocide|Second Sudanese Civil War|War in Darfur))
[[File:Omar al-Bashir, 12th AU Summit, 090131-N-0506A-342.jpg|thumb|Sudanese President [[Omar al-Bashir]], wanted by the ICC]]
The ongoing [[Racism in Sudan|racial]]<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |title=Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur: A Viable Option? |date=7 November 2008 |publisher=Turkishweekly.net |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232607/http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |df=dmy-all))</ref><ref>((cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |work=Huffington Post |title=Al-Bashir Arrest Warrant Issued By International Criminal Court |date=4 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202708/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |archive-date=21 February 2010))</ref><ref>((cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094995 |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Sudan country profile |date=27 April 2010 |access-date=3 May 2010))</ref> conflict in [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]],<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html|title=The Online NewsHour: Crisis in Sudan &#124; Janjaweed Militia &#124; PBS|website=[[PBS]] |date=28 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128121659/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html |archive-date=28 January 2007 ))</ref> which started in 2003,<ref>((Cite journal|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html|title=Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis|journal=Christian Science Monitor))</ref><ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide|title=Darfur's Sorrow: A History of Destruction and Genocide. -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia|date=8 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208024419/https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide |archive-date=8 December 2009 ))</ref> was declared a genocide by [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell]] on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040911045335/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide'], [[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]], 9 September 2004</ref><ref>((cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/ |work=[[CBS News]] |title=Witnessing Genocide in Sudan |date=8 October 2004 |access-date=10 April 2016))</ref> Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed suit. In January 2005, an [[International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur]], authorized by [[UN Security Council Resolution 1564]] of 2004, issued a report stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005">((cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf |title=Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General |publisher=[[United Nations]] |page=4 |date=25 January 2005 |access-date=5 February 2017))</ref> Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005"/>

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |title=Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[United Nations Security Council]] |date=31 March 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529082238/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2005 |df=dmy))</ref> Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.<ref>[https://www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, to Prosecutor of International Criminal Court], UN Press Release SC/8351, 31 March 2005</ref> As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the [[UN Security Council Resolution 1593]]] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes", but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |title=Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to UNSC 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) |date=14 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614011746/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |df=dmy))</ref>

In April 2007, the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, [[Ahmad Harun]], and a [[Janjaweed]] militia leader, [[Ali Kushayb]], for crimes against humanity and war crimes.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |title=Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) |date=5 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813022926/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2008))</ref> On 14 July 2008, the ICC filed ten charges of [[war crimes]] against Sudan's president [[Omar al-Bashir]], three counts of genocide, five of [[crimes against humanity]], and two of murder. Prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.<ref name="Guardian-2008-jul-14">((Cite news |first=Peter |last=Walker |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |title=Darfur genocide charges for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir |access-date=15 July 2008 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 July 2008 |location=London))</ref> On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashir's arrest for crimes against humanity and war crimes but not for genocide. This is the first warrant issued by the ICC against a sitting head of state.<ref>Staff. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm Warrant issued for Sudan's leader], BBC, 4 March 2009</ref>

=== International Court of Justice ===

==== Ukraine ====
Two days after the start of the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022, on 26 February, [[Ukraine]] brought the case of [[Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)|Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] before the [[ICJ]]. The case followed false Russian [[accusations of genocide in Donbas]] which genocide scholars have described as [[accusation in a mirror]] as part of a campaign of genocide incitement.<ref>((cite web |date=27 May 2022 |title=Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federation's Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616080955/https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |work=New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy; Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights))</ref> The court is conducting an investigation of all [[Allegations of genocide of Ukrainians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|allegations of genocide in Ukraine]]. 

In November 2022, Ukraine's Prosecutor General [[Andriy Kostin]] said that during the course of five proceedings on genocide by law enforcement, investigators had recorded "more than 300 facts that belong precisely to the definition of genocide".<ref>((Cite news |title=Ukrainian law enforcement officers record more than 300 cases of genocide – top prosecutor |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3605179-ukrainian-law-enforcement-officers-record-more-than-300-cases-of-genocide-top-prosecutor.html |access-date=21 February 2023 |work=[[Ukrinform]] |language=en))</ref>

==== Rohingya ====
On 11 November 2019, [[The Gambia]] lodged an application to the ICJ against [[Myanmar]]. It alleged that Myanmar has [[Rohingya genocide|committed mass murder, rape, and destruction]] of communities against the [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] group in [[Rakhine State|Rakhine]] state since about October 2016 and that those actions violated the [[Genocide Convention]]. <ref>((Cite news |date=1 November 2019 |title=Factbox: Myanmar on trial for Rohingya genocide – the legal cases |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-justice-factbox-idUSKBN1XV0MU |access-date=22 February 2023))</ref>
==== Israel ====

On December 29, 2023, [[South Africa]] filed an [[South_Africa_v._Israel_(Genocide_Convention)|Application instituting proceedings]] against Israel with the ICJ alleging that [[Israel]] had violated its obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (the "Genocide Convention") during its [[2023 Israel–Hamas war|2023 offensive in the Gaza Strip]].<ref>((cite web |title=Application instituting proceedings and request for the indication of provisional measures. Document Number 192-20231228-APP-01-00-EN |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203394))</ref> South Africa's standing is based on the ''erga omnes partes'' nature of the Genocide Convention, which allows and obligates States Parties to the convention to take measures to prevent and punish the crime of genocide. South Africa requested indication of provisional measures by the ICJ, including that Israel end its military operations, to "protect against further, severe and irreperable harm to the rights of the Palestinian people under the Genocide Convention", triggering an urgent preliminary hearing. Public hearings on the provisional measures question were held on January 11 (oral arguments by South Africa) and January 12 (oral arguments by Israel), respectively.<ref>((cite web |title=Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel) |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192))</ref>

== See also ==
((Main|Outline of Genocide studies))
((Portal|Genocide))
((columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Anti-communist mass killings]]
* ((Section link|Anti-Mongolianism|State-sponsored genocides by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial China/Communist China))
* [[Black genocide]] – the notion that [[African Americans]] have been subjected to genocide because of [[racism against African Americans]], an aspect of [[racism in the United States]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing]]
* [[Ethnocide]]
* [[Genocide denial]]
* [[Genocide recognition politics]]
* [[Genocide of Christians by the Islamic State]]
* [[Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State]]
* [[List of ethnic cleansing campaigns]]
* [[List of genocides]]
* [[Mass killings under communist regimes]]
* [[Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State]]
* [[Political cleansing of population]]
))

== Notes ==
((notelist))

== References ==
((reflist))

== Bibliography ==
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* ((cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PsLXeDflfMC |date=2005 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-84511-057-4 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |year=2008 |chapter=Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-last=Moses |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC |title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History |pages=183–204 |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1-84545-452-4 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite journal |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |year=2008 |title=From Terror to Genocide: Britain's Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australia's History Wars |journal=[[Journal of British Studies]] |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=77–106 |jstor=10.1086/522350 |doi=10.1086/522350 |s2cid=146190611))
* ((citation |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |title=Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin |year=1995))
* ((cite book |editor-last=Mey |editor-first=Wolfgang |year=1984 |title=Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs ([[IWGIA]]) |url=http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/0172_51.pdf ))
* ((cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |year=2004 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1571814104))
* ((cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=Dirk Moses |year=2010 |chapter=Raphael Lemkin, Culture, and the Concept of Genocide |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor1-first=Donald |editor1-link=Donald Bloxham |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-first=A. Dirk |editor2-link=Dirk Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=19ff |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0002 |isbn=978-0-19-923211-6))
* ((cite book |last=Moshin |first=A. |year=2003 |title=The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace |location=Boulder, Col. |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers))
* ((cite book |last1=Niewyk |first1=Donald L. |first2=Francis R. |last2=Nicosia |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew/page/45 45] |isbn=9780231112000 |quote=The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II. |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew |url-access=registration ))
* ((cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Sharon |chapter=The Chittagong Hill Tracts |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity |editor-first=Dinah |editor-last=Shelton |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference |year=2004 |pages=176–77))
* ((cite book |first=Cormac |last=Ó Gráda |title=Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory |url=https://archive.org/details/black47beyondgre00ogra |url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-07015-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/black47beyondgre00ogra/page/10 10] ))
* ((cite book |last1=Olusoga |first1=David |last2=Erichsen |first2=Casper W. |year=2010 |title=The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism |location=London |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |isbn=978-0571231416))
* ((cite book |last=Perdue |first=Peter C. |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/chinamarcheswest00pete |title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia |location=Cambridge, MA; London |publisher=The Belknap Press of [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-01684-2 ))
* ((cite book |last1=Robins |first1=Nicholas |last2=Jones |first2=Adam |title=Genocides by the Oppressed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AX3UCk_PdEwC |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-253-22077-6 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Rosenbaum |first=Alan S. |year=2001 |title=Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-367-00714-0))
* ((cite book |last=Roy |first=Rajkumari |year=2000 |title=Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs))
* ((cite book |last=Rubinstein |first=W. D. |title=Genocide: A History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA47 |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-582-50601-5 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Rummel |first=Rudolph J. |author-link=Rudolph Rummel |title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-8258-4010-5 |year=1998 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Sarkin-Hughes |first=Jeremy |title=Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVX3XcuC9akC |date=2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0-313-36257-6 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |year=2000 |title=Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-78790-1))
* ((cite book |last1=Sheriff |first1=Abdul |last2=Ferguson |first2=Ed |title=Zanzibar under colonial rule |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji1zAAAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=978-0-8214-0996-1 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite journal |last=Sommer |first=Tomasz |year=2010 |title=Execute the Poles: The Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 1937–1938. Documents from Headquarters |journal=[[The Polish Review]] |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=417–36 |doi=10.2307/27920673 |jstor=27920673 |s2cid=151099905))
* ((cite journal |last=Speller |first=Ian |title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964. |journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |year=2007 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=1–35 |url=http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/841/ |doi=10.1080/03086530701337666 |s2cid=159656717 ))
* ((cite book |last=Stannard |first=David E. |title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World |url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan |date=1993 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-508557-0 |quote=... estimated population for the year 1769 ... Nationwide by this time only about one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people—were natives. The worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed ... finally had leveled off. There was, at last, almost no one left to kill. ))
#* ((cite book |last=Staub |first=Ervin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29u-vt_KgGEC |title=The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-42214-7 |year=1989 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Stone (historian) |title=Histories of the Holocaust |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-956679-2))
* ((cite book |last=Maybury-Lewis |first=David |chapter=Genocide against Indigenous peoples |title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide |year=2002 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520230293))
* ((cite book |last=Tan |first=Mely G. |author-link=Mely G. Tan |year=2008 |language=id |title=Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan |trans-title=Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: A Collection of Writings |publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia |location=Jakarta |isbn=978-979-461-689-5))
* ((citation |last=van Bruineßen |first=Martin |url=http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |contribution=Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988) |editor-first=George J. |editor-last=Andreopoulos |title=Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=1994 |pages=141–70 |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521155242/http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all ))
* ((cite book |last=Vanthemsche |first=Guy |year=2012 |title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImNjdlBHzukC&q=Leopold%201908%20Congo%20atrocities&pg=PA41 |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0521194211 |via=[[Google Books]] ))
* ((cite journal |last1=Weisbord |first1=Robert G. |year=2003 |title=The King, the Cardinal, and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=5 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1080/14623520305651 |s2cid=73371517))
* ((cite journal |last=Woodham-Smith |first=Cecil |title=The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849 |journal=Signet: New York |year=1964 |author-link=Cecil Woodham-Smith |page=19))
* ((cite book |last=Wright |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Wright |year=2004 |title=A Short History of Progress |location=Toronto |publisher=House of Anansi Press |isbn=978-0-88784-706-6 |title-link=A Short History of Progress))
((refend))

== Further reading ==
* ((cite book |last=Bachman |first=Jeffrey S. |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-1HDwAAQBAJ |title=The United States and Genocide: (Re)Defining the Relationship with Genocide |edition=E-book |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-69216-8 |via=[[Google Books]]))
* [[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'', vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984 (in French 1979).
* ((cite book |last=Schabas |first=William A. |year=2009 |title=Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-71900-1))
* ((cite journal |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |date=December 2005 |title=Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide' |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=551–559 |doi=10.1080/14623520500350017 |s2cid=144612446 |issn=1462-3528))

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