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((Short description|Writings from the island of Ireland))
((For|Modern literature originally written in the Irish language|Modern literature in Irish))
((use Hiberno-English|date=September 2023))
((use dmy dates|date=August 2021))
((tone|date=March 2014))
[[File:2717x3508 Irish Writers.jpg|thumb|upright 1.35|Several notable Irish Writers. Clockwise from top left: [[Jonathan Swift]]; [[W.B. Yeats]]; [[Oscar Wilde]]; [[James Joyce]]; [[Colm Toibín]]; [[Seamus Heaney]]; [[Samuel Beckett]]; [[George Bernard Shaw|G.B. Shaw]] ]]
((Culture of Ireland))

'''Irish literature''' is literature written in the [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Hiberno-Latin|Latin]], [[English language|English]] and [[Scots Language|Scots]] ([[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]]) languages on the island of [[Ireland]]. The earliest recorded Irish writing dates from back in the 7th century and was produced by monks writing in both Latin and Early Irish, including religious texts, poetry and mythological tales. There is a large surviving body of [[Irish mythology|Irish mythological writing]], including tales such as [[The Táin]] and [[Buile Shuibhne|Mad King Sweeny]].((cn|date=March 2023))

The English language was introduced to Ireland in the 13th century, following the [[Norman invasion of Ireland]]. The 16th and 17th centuries saw a major expansion of English power across Ireland, further expanding the presence of [[early Modern English]] speakers. One theory is that in the latter part of the nineteenth century saw a rapid replacement of Irish by English in the greater part of the country, largely due to the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] and the subsequent decimation of the Irish population by starvation and emigration.<ref>((cite web|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01147770/document|title='The Great Famine in Ireland: a Linguistic and Cultural Disruption|last=Falc’Her-Poyroux|first=Erick|date=1 May 2015|website=Halshs Archives-Ouvertes|access-date=5 February 2020))</ref> Another theory among modern scholars is that far from being a sudden cataclysmic event the language shift was well underway much earlier<ref>https://irishstudies.nd.edu/events/2018/12/03/aidan-doyle-on-language-change-in-19th-century-ireland-a-new-interpretation/</ref> At the end of the century, however, cultural nationalism displayed a new energy, marked by the [[Gaelic Revival]] (which encouraged a modern literature in Irish) and more generally by the [[Irish Literary Revival]]. 

What is often termed the [[Anglo-Irish people|Anglo-Irish]] literary tradition<ref name="Moynahan_AngIrLit">((Cite book |last=Moynahan |first=Julian |title=Anglo-Irish: The Literary Imagination in a Hyphenated Culture |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1995 |edition=1st |location=Princeton))</ref> found its first great exponents in [[Richard Head]] and [[Jonathan Swift]], followed by [[Laurence Sterne]], [[Oliver Goldsmith]], and [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]]. Other Irish writers in English include
[[Mary Tighe]], [[Thady Connellan]], [[Arthur Murphy (writer)| Arthur Murphy]], [[John O'Keeffe (writer)| John O'Keeffe]], [[Nicholas Brady (poet)| Nicholas Brady]], [[Sydney, Lady Morgan]], [[Edmond Malone]], [[Hugh Kelly (poet)| Hugh Kelly]], [[Matthew Concanen]], [[Anne Donnellan]], [[Samuel Madden (author)|Samuel Madden]] and [[Thomas Dermody]].  

The descendants of Scottish settlers in Ulster maintained an Ulster-Scots writing tradition, having an especially strong tradition of rhyming poetry.((cn|date=March 2023))

At the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century, Irish literature in English benefited from the work of such authors as [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Bram Stoker]], [[James Joyce]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Elizabeth Bowen]], [[C. S. Lewis]], [[Kate O'Brien (novelist)|Kate O'Brien]] and [[George Bernard Shaw]], not all of whom stayed in Ireland.((cn|date=March 2023))

Though English was the dominant Irish literary language in the 20th century, works of high quality were also produced in [[Irish language|Irish]]. A pioneering modernist writer in Irish was [[Pádraic Ó Conaire]], and traditional life was given vigorous expression in a series of autobiographies by native Irish speakers from the west coast, exemplified by the work of [[Tomás Ó Criomhthain]] and [[Peig Sayers]]. [[Máiréad Ní Ghráda]] wrote numerous successful plays often influenced by [[Bertolt Brecht]], as well as the first translation of [[Peter Pan]], ''Tír na Deo'', and ''Manannán'', the first Irish language [[Science fiction]] book. The outstanding modernist prose writer in Irish was [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]], and prominent poets included [[Caitlín Maude]], [[Máirtín Ó Direáin]], [[Seán Ó Ríordáin]] and [[Máire Mhac an tSaoi]]. Prominent bilingual writers included [[Brendan Behan]] (who wrote poetry and a play in Irish) and [[Flann O'Brien]]. Two novels by O'Brien, ''[[At Swim Two Birds]]'' and ''[[The Third Policeman]]'', are considered early examples of postmodern fiction, but he also wrote a satirical novel in Irish called ''An Béal Bocht'' (translated as ''The Poor Mouth''). [[Liam O'Flaherty]], who gained fame as a writer in English, also published a book of short stories in Irish (''Dúil''). Irish-language literature has maintained its vitality into the 21st century. 

Most attention has been given to Irish writers who wrote in English and who were at the forefront of the modernist movement, notably [[James Joyce]], whose novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' is considered one of the most influential works of the century. The playwright [[Samuel Beckett]], in addition to a large amount of prose fiction, wrote a number of important plays, including ''[[Waiting for Godot]]''. Several Irish writers have excelled at [[Irish short story|short story]] writing, in particular [[Edna O'Brien]], [[Frank O'Connor]], [[Lord Dunsany]] and [[William Trevor]]. Other notable Irish writers from the twentieth century include poets [[Eavan Boland]] and [[Patrick Kavanagh]], dramatists [[Tom Murphy (playwright)|Tom Murphy]] and [[Brian Friel]], and novelists [[Edna O'Brien]] and [[John McGahern]]. In the late twentieth century, Irish poets, especially those from Northern Ireland, came to prominence including [[Derek Mahon]], [[Medbh McGuckian]], [[John Montague (poet)|John Montague]], [[Seamus Heaney]] and [[Paul Muldoon]]. Influential works of writing continue to emerge in Northern Ireland with huge success such as [[Anna Burns]], [[Sinéad Morrissey]], and [[Lisa McGee]].

Well-known Irish writers in English in the twenty-first century include [[Edna O'Brien]], [[Colum McCann]], [[Anne Enright]], [[Roddy Doyle]], [[Moya Cannon]], [[Sebastian Barry]], [[Colm Toibín]], and [[John Banville]], all of whom have all won major awards. Younger writers include [[Sinéad Gleeson]], [[Paul Murray (author)|Paul Murray]], [[Anna Burns]], [[Billy O'Callaghan]], [[Kevin Barry (author)|Kevin Barry]], [[Emma Donoghue]], [[Donal Ryan]], [[Sally Rooney]], [[William Wall (writer)|William Wall]], [[Marina Carr]], and [[Martin McDonagh]]. 

==The Middle Ages: 500–1500==
((main|Early Irish literature))
[[File:Irish writing.jpg|thumb|261px|right|Irish writing from the 8th century]]
Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in western Europe (after [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]]).<ref>Maureen O'Rourke Murphy, James MacKillop. An Irish Literature Reader. Syracuse University Press. p. 3.</ref><ref>((cite web|url=http://www.krysstal.com/langfams_indoeuro.html|title=Languages : Indo-European Family|website=Krysstal.com|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref>

The Irish became fully literate with the arrival of Christianity in the fifth century. Before that time a simple writing system known as “[[Ogham|ogham]]” was used for inscriptions. These inscriptions are mostly simple "x son of y" statements. The introduction of Latin led to the adaptation of the Latin alphabet to the Irish language and the rise of a small literate class, both clerical and lay.<ref>Dillon and Chadwick (1973), pp. 241–250</ref><ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 54–72</ref>

The earliest works of literature produced in Ireland are by [[Saint Patrick]]; his ''Confessio'' and ''Epistola'', both in Latin.<ref>((cite web |title=Saint Patrick's Confessio |url=https://www.confessio.ie/# |website=Confessio |access-date=16 February 2020))</ref> The earliest literature in Irish consisted of lyric poetry and prose sagas set in the distant past. The earliest poetry, composed in the 6th century, illustrates a vivid religious faith or describes the world of nature, and was sometimes written in the margins of illuminated manuscripts. "The Blackbird of [[Belfast Lough]]", a fragment of syllabic verse probably dating from the 9th century, has inspired reinterpretations and translations in modern times by [[John Montague (poet)|John Montague]], [[John Hewitt (poet)|John Hewitt]], [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Ciaran Carson]], and [[Thomas Kinsella]], as well as a version into modern Irish by Tomás Ó Floinn.<ref>((cite news|last=Sansom|first=Ian|title=The Blackbird of Belfast Lough keeps singing|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2008/nov/19/seamus-heaney-poetry-blackbird?INTCMP=SRCH|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=19 January 2013|location=London|date=20 November 2008))</ref>

The ''[[Book of Armagh]]'' is a 9th-century [[illuminated manuscript]] written mainly in Latin, containing early texts relating to [[St Patrick]] and some of the oldest surviving specimens of [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]. It is one of the earliest manuscripts produced by an insular church to contain a near complete copy of the New Testament. The manuscript was the work of a scribe named [[Ferdomnach of Armagh]] (died 845 or 846). Ferdomnach wrote the first part of the book in 807 or 808, for Patrick's heir (''comarba'') Torbach. It was one of the symbols of the office for the [[Archbishop of Armagh (Roman Catholic)|Archbishop of Armagh]].

The [[Annals of Ulster]] (((lang-ga|Annála Uladh))) cover years from [[Anno Domini|AD]] 431 to AD 1540 and were compiled in the territory of what is now [[Northern Ireland]]: entries up to AD 1489 were compiled in the late 15th century by the scribe Ruaidhrí Ó Luinín, under his patron [[Cathal Óg Mac Maghnusa]] on the island of Belle Isle on [[Lough Erne]]. The [[Ulster Cycle]] written in the 12th century, is a body of medieval Irish heroic legends and sagas of the traditional heroes of the [[Ulaid]] in what is now eastern [[Ulster]] and northern [[Leinster]], particularly counties [[County Armagh|Armagh]], [[County Down|Down]] and [[County Louth|Louth]]. The stories are written in [[Old Irish|Old]] and [[Middle Irish]], mostly in prose, interspersed with occasional verse passages. The language of the earliest stories is dateable to the 8th century, and events and characters are referred to in poems dating to the 7th.<ref>Garret Olmsted, "The Earliest Narrative Version of the ''Táin'': Seventh-century poetic references to ''Táin bó Cúailnge''", Emania 10, 1992, pp. 5–17</ref>

After the Old Irish period, there is a vast range of poetry from medieval and Renaissance times. By degrees the Irish created a classical tradition in their own language. Verse remained the main vehicle of literary expression, and by the 12th century questions of form and style had been essentially settled, with little change until the 17th century.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 147–156</ref>

Medieval Irish writers also created an extensive literature in Latin: this [[Hiberno-Latin]] literature was notable for its learned vocabulary, including a greater use of loanwords from Greek and Hebrew than was common in medieval Latin elsewhere in Europe.

The literary Irish language (known in English as Classical Irish), was a sophisticated medium with elaborate verse forms, and was taught in bardic schools (i.e. academies of higher learning) both in Ireland and Scotland.<ref>See the foreword in Knott (1981).</ref> These produced historians, lawyers and a professional literary class which depended on the aristocracy for patronage. Much of the writing produced in this period was conventional in character, in praise of patrons and their families, but the best of it was of exceptionally high quality and included poetry of a personal nature. [[Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh]] (14th century), Tadhg Óg Ó hUiginn (15th century) and Eochaidh Ó hEoghusa (16th century) were among the most distinguished of these poets. Every noble family possessed a body of manuscripts containing genealogical and other material, and the work of the best poets was used for teaching purposes in the bardic schools.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp.150–194</ref> In this hierarchical society, fully trained poets belonged to the highest stratum; they were court officials but were thought to still possess ancient magical powers.<ref>For a discussion of poets' supernatural powers, inseparable from their social and literary functions, see Ó hÓgáin (1982).</ref>

Women were largely excluded from the official literature, though female aristocrats could be patrons in their own right. An example is the 15th century noblewoman Mairgréag Ní Cearbhaill, praised by the learned for her hospitality.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp.165–6.</ref> At that level a certain number of women were literate, and some were contributors to an unofficial corpus of courtly love poetry known as ''dánta grádha''.<ref>Examples can be found in O'Rahilly (2000).</ref>

Prose continued to be cultivated in the medieval period in the form of tales. The Norman invasion of the 12th century introduced a new body of stories which influenced the Irish tradition, and in time translations were made from English.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), p. 149.</ref>

Irish poets also composed the ''[[Dindsenchas]]'' ("lore of places"),<ref>''dind'' "notable place"; ''senchas'' "old tales, ancient history, tradition" – ''[[Dictionary of the Irish Language]]'', Compact Edition, 1990, pp. 215, 537</ref><ref>''Collins Pocket Irish Dictionary'' p. 452</ref> a class of [[onomastic]] texts recounting the origins of place-names and traditions concerning events and characters associated with the places in question. Since many of the legends related concern the acts of mythic and legendary figures, the ''dindsenchas'' is an important source for the study of Irish mythology.

===Irish mythological and legendary saga cycles===
((Main|Irish mythology))
[[Image:Navan.jpg|thumb|right|Navan Fort: identified as the ancient Emain Macha, setting of many tales in the Ulster cycle]]
Early Irish literature is usually arranged in four epic cycles. These cycles are considered to contain a series of recurring characters and locations.<ref>((cite book |last1=Poppe |first1=Erich |title=Of cycles and other critical matters: some issues in medieval Irish literary history. |date=2008 |publisher=Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic, University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge))</ref> The first of these is the [[Mythological Cycle]], which concerns the Irish pagan pantheon, the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]]. Recurring characters in these stories are [[Lugh|Lug]], [[The Dagda]] and [[Aengus|Óengus]], while many of the tales are set around the [[Brú na Bóinne]]. The principle tale of the Mythological cycle is ''[[Cath Maige Tuired]]'' (''The Battle of Moytura''), which shows how the Tuatha Dé Danann defeated the [[Fomorian]]s. Later synthetic histories of Ireland placed this battle as occurring at the same time as the [[Trojan War]].

Second is the [[Ulster Cycle]], mentioned above, also known as the Red Branch Cycle or the Heroic Cycle. This cycle contains tales of the conflicts between [[Ulster]] and [[Connacht]] during the legendary reigns of King [[Conchobar mac Nessa]] in Ulster and [[Medb]] and [[Ailill mac Máta|Ailill]] in Connacht. The chief saga of the Ulster cycle is ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'', the so-called "[[Iliad]] of the [[Gaels|Gael]],".<ref>((cite journal|last1= MacDonald|first1= Keith Norman|year=1904 |title=The Reasons Why I Believe in the Ossianic Poems |journal=The Celtic Monthly: A Magazine for Highlanders|location=Glasgow|publisher=Celtic Press|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6OY-AAAAYAAJ|volume=12|page=235|access-date=8 October 2013))</ref> Other recurring characters include [[Cú Chulainn]], a figure comparable to the Greek hero [[Achilles]], known for his terrifying battle frenzy, or ''ríastrad'',<ref>Literally "the act of contorting, a distortion" (''[[Dictionary of the Irish Language]]'', Compact Edition, [[Royal Irish Academy]], Dublin, 1990, p. 507)</ref> [[Fergus mac Róich|Fergus]] and [[Conall Cernach]]. [[Navan Fort|Emain Macha]] and [[Rathcroghan|Cruachan]] are the chief locations. The cycle is set around the end of the 1st century BC and the beginning of the 1st century AD, with the death of Conchobar being set at the same day as the Crucifixion.<ref>((cite web |last1=Meyer |first1=Kuno |title=The Death-Tales of the Ulster Heroes |url=https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T301037/index.html |website=CELT - Corpus of Electronic Texts |access-date=17 February 2020))</ref>

Third is a body of romance woven round [[Fionn Mac Cumhaill]], his son [[Oisin]], and his grandson [[Oscar (Irish Mythology)|Oscar]], in the reigns of the [[High King of Ireland]] [[Cormac mac Airt]], in the second and third centuries AD. This cycle of romance is usually called the [[Fenian cycle]] because it deals so largely with Fionn Mac Cumhaill and his ''[[fianna]]'' (militia). The [[Hill of Allen]] is often associated with the Fenian cycle. The chief tales of the Fenian cycle are ''[[Acallam na Senórach]]'' (often translated as ''Colloquy with the Ancients'' or ''Tales of the Elders of Ireland'') and ''[[The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne|Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne]]'' (''The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne''). While there are early tales regarding Fionn, the majority of the Fenian cycle appears to have been written later than the other cycles.

Fourth is the [[Cycle of the Kings|Historical Cycle]], or Cycle of the Kings. The Historical Cycle ranges from the almost entirely mythological [[Labraid Loingsech]], who allegedly became [[High King of Ireland]] around 431 BC, to the entirely historical [[Brian Boru]], who reigned as High King of Ireland in the eleventh century AD. The Historical Cycle includes the late medieval tale ''[[Buile Shuibhne]]'' (''The Frenzy of Sweeney''), which has influenced the works of [[T. S. Eliot|T.S. Eliot]] and [[Flann O'Brien]], and ''[[Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib]]'' (''The War of the Irish with the Foreigners''), which tells of Brian Boru's wars against the Vikings. Unlike the other cycles there is not a consistent set of characters or locations in this cycle, as the stories settings span more than a thousand years; though many stories feature [[Conn of the Hundred Battles|Conn Cétchathach]] or [[Niall of the Nine Hostages|Niall Noígíallach]] and the [[Hill of Tara]] is a common location.

Unusually among European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written in [[prosimetrum]], i.e. prose, with verse interpolations expressing heightened emotion. Although usually found in manuscripts of later periods, many of these works contain language that predates the surviving records, and some of the poetry is significantly older than the complete tales they form a part of. It is thus not unusual to find poetry from the Old Irish period in a tale written in Middle Irish.

While these four cycles are common to readers today they are the invention of modern scholars. There are several tales which do not fit neatly into one category, or not into any category at all. Early Irish writers though of tales in terms of genre's such as ''Aided'' (Death-tales), ''Aislinge'' (Visions), ''Cath'' (Battle-tales), ''Echtra'' (Adventures), ''Immram'' (Voyages), ''Táin Bó'' (Cattle Raids), ''Tochmarc'' (Wooings) and ''Togail'' (Destructions).<ref>((cite book |last1=Mac Cana |first1=Pronsias |title=The Learned Tales of Medieval Ireland |date=1980 |publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies |location=Dublin |isbn=9781855001206))</ref> As well as Irish mythology there were also adaptations into Middle Irish of Classical mythological tales such as ''Togail Troí'' (The Destruction of [[Troy]], adapted from ''Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia'', purportedly by [[Dares Phrygius]]),<ref>((cite web |title=Togail Troí |url=https://www.vanhamel.nl/codecs/Togail_Tro%C3%AD |website=Van Hamel Codecs |access-date=16 February 2020))</ref> ''Togail na Tebe'' (The Destruction of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], from [[Statius]]' ''[[Thebaid (Latin poem)|Thebaid]])''<ref>((cite web |title=Togail na Tebe |url=https://www.vanhamel.nl/codecs/Togail_na_Tebe |website=Van Hamel Codecs |access-date=16 February 2020))</ref> and ''Imtheachta Æniasa'' (from [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'').<ref>((cite web |title=Imtheachta Æniasa |url=https://www.vanhamel.nl/codecs/Imtheachta_%C3%86niasa |website=Van Hamel Codecs |access-date=16 February 2020))</ref>

==The Early Modern period: 1500–1800 ==
The 17th century saw the tightening of English control over Ireland and the suppression of the traditional aristocracy. This meant that the literary class lost its patrons, since the new nobility were English speakers with little sympathy for the older culture. The elaborate classical metres lost their dominance and were largely replaced by more popular forms.<ref>TLG 201–223</ref> This was an age of social and political tension, as expressed by the poet [[Dáibhí Ó Bruadair]] and the anonymous authors of ''Pairliment Chloinne Tomáis'', a prose satire on the aspirations of the lower classes.<ref>See the introduction to Williams (1981). The text is bilingual.</ref> Prose of another sort was represented by the historical works of [[Geoffrey Keating]] (Seathrún Céitinn) and the compilation known as the ''[[Annals of the Four Masters]]''.

The consequences of these changes were seen in the 18th century. Poetry was still the dominant literary medium and its practitioners were often poor scholars, educated in the classics at local schools and schoolmasters by trade. Such writers produced polished work in popular metres for a local audience. This was particularly the case in Munster, in the south-west of Ireland, and notable names included [[Eoghan Rua Ó Súilleabháin]] and [[Aogán Ó Rathaille]] of [[Sliabh Luachra]]. A certain number of local patrons were still to be found, even in the early 19th century, and especially among the few surviving families of the Gaelic aristocracy.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 252–268, 282–290. See Corkery (1925) for a detailed discussion of the social context.</ref>

Irish was still an urban language, and continued to be so well into the 19th century. In the first half of the 18th century Dublin was the home of an Irish-language literary circle connected to the Ó Neachtain (Naughton) family, a group with wide-ranging Continental connections.<ref>Caerwyn Williams and Ní Mhuiríosa (1979), pp. 279–282.</ref>

There is little evidence of female literacy for this period, but women were of great importance in the oral tradition. They were the main composers of traditional laments. The most famous of these is ''[[Caoineadh Airt Uí Laoghaire]]'', composed in the late 18th century by [[Eibhlín Dubh Ní Chonaill]], one of the last of the Gaelic gentry of West Kerry.<ref>See the introduction to Ó Tuama, Seán (1961) (ed.), ''Caoineadh Airt Uí Laoghaire'', An Clóchomhar Tta, Baile Átha Cliath.</ref> Compositions of this sort were not committed to writing until collected in the 19th century.

=== The manuscript tradition ===
((Reformationliterature |expanded=british))

Well after the introduction of printing to Ireland, works in Irish continued to be disseminated in manuscript form. The first printed book in Ireland was the [[Book of Common Prayer]].<ref>((cite web|url=http://ireland.anglican.org/Archives/newsbrief/nbarchive2001/1549.html|title=Church of Ireland - A Member of the Anglican Communion|website=Ireland.anglican.org|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref>

Access to the printing press was hindered in the 1500s and 1600s by official caution, although an Irish version of the Bible (known as [[William Bedell|Bedell]]'s Bible after the Anglican clergyman who commissioned it) was published in the 17th century. A number of popular works in Irish, both devotional and secular, were available in print by the early 19th century, but the manuscript remained the most affordable means of transmission almost until the end of the century.<ref>See Niall Ó Ciosáin in ''Books beyond the Pale: Aspects of the Provincial Book Trade in Ireland before 1850'', Gerard Long (ed.). Dublin: Rare Books Group of the Library Association of Ireland. 1996. ((ISBN|978-0-946037-31-5))</ref>

Manuscripts were collected by literate individuals (schoolmasters, farmers and others) and were copied and recopied. They might include material several centuries old. Access to them was not confined to the literate, since the contents were read aloud at local gatherings. This was still the case in the late 19th century in Irish-speaking districts.<ref>Ó Madagáin (1980), pp.24–38.</ref>

Manuscripts were often taken abroad, particularly to [[United States|America]]. In the 19th century, many of these were collected by individuals or cultural institutions.<ref>Mac Aonghusa (1979), p.23.</ref>

===The Irish English tradition (1): In the 18th century===
[[Jonathan Swift]] (1667–1745), a powerful and versatile satirist, was Ireland's first earliest notable writer in English. Swift held positions of authority in both England and Ireland at different times. Many of Swift's works reflected support for Ireland during times of political turmoil with England, including ''Proposal for Universal Use of Irish Manufacture'' (1720), ''Drapier's Letters'' (1724), and ''A Modest Proposal'' (1729), and earned him the status of an Irish patriot.<ref>Stephen DNB pp. 217–218</ref>

[[Oliver Goldsmith]] (1730–1774), born in County Longford, moved to London, where he became part of the literary establishment, though his poetry reflects his youth in Ireland. He is best known for his novel ''[[The Vicar of Wakefield]]'' (1766), his pastoral poem ''[[The Deserted Village]]'' (1770), and his plays ''[[The Good-Natur'd Man]]'' (1768) and ''[[She Stoops to Conquer]]'' (1771, first performed in 1773). [[Edmund Burke]] (1729–1797) was born in Dublin and came to serve in the House of Commons of Great Britain on behalf of the Whig Party, and establish a reputation in his oratory and published works for great philosophical clarity as well as a lucid literary style.

===Literature in Ulster Scots (1): In the 18th century===
[[Scottish people|Scots]], mainly [[Middle Irish|Gaelic]]-speaking, had been settling in Ulster since the 15th century, but large numbers of [[Scots language|Scots]]-speaking [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlanders]], some 200,000, arrived during the 17th century following the 1610 [[Plantation of Ulster|Plantation]], with the peak reached during the 1690s.<ref name="Montgomery & Gregg 1997: 585">Montgomery & Gregg 1997: 585</ref> In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one.<ref>Adams 1977: 57</ref>

In Ulster Scots-speaking areas the work of Scottish poets, such as [[Allan Ramsay (1686-1758)|Allan Ramsay]] (1686–1758) and [[Robert Burns]] (1759–96), was very popular, often in locally printed editions. This was complemented by a poetry revival and nascent prose genre in Ulster, which started around 1720.<ref name="Robinson 2003">''The historical presence of Ulster-Scots in Ireland'', Robinson, in ''The Languages of Ireland'', ed. Cronin and Ó Cuilleanáin, Dublin 2003 ((ISBN|1-85182-698-X))</ref> A tradition of poetry and prose in Ulster Scots began around 1720.<ref name="Robinson 2003"/> The most prominent being the ''''[[Weaver Poets|rhyming weaver]]'''' poetry, publication of which began after 1750, though a [[broadsheet]] was published in [[Strabane]] in 1735.<ref name="Rhyming Weavers, Hewitt, 1974">''Rhyming Weavers'', Hewitt, 1974</ref>

These weaver poets looked to Scotland for their cultural and literary models but were not simple imitators. They were inheritors of the same literary tradition and followed the same poetic and orthographic practices; it is not always immediately possible to distinguish between traditional Scots writing from Scotland and Ulster. Among the ''rhyming weavers'' were James Campbell (1758–1818), [[James Orr (poet)|James Orr]] (1770–1816), Thomas Beggs (1749–1847).

== The Modern period: from 1800 ==
((main|Irish fiction|Irish poetry|Irish short story))
In the 19th century English was well on the way to becoming the dominant vernacular. Down until the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] of the 1840s, however, and even later, Irish was still used over large areas of the south-west, the west and the north-west.

A famous long poem from the beginning of the century is ''[[The Midnight Court|Cúirt an Mheán Oíche]]'' (The Midnight Court), a vigorous and inventive satire by [[Brian Merriman]] from [[County Clare]]. The copying of manuscripts continued unabated. One such collection was in the possession of [[Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin]], a teacher and linen draper of [[County Kilkenny]] who kept a unique diary in vernacular Irish from 1827 to 1835 covering local and international events, with a wealth of information about daily life.

The Great Famine of the 1840s hastened the retreat of the Irish language. Many of its speakers died of hunger or fever, and many more emigrated. The [[hedge school]]s of earlier decades which had helped maintain the native culture were now supplanted by a system of National Schools where English was given primacy. Literacy in Irish was restricted to a very few.

A vigorous English-speaking middle class was now the dominant cultural force. A number of its members were influenced by political or cultural nationalism, and some took an interest in the literature of the Irish language. One such was a young Protestant scholar called [[Samuel Ferguson]] who studied the language privately and discovered its poetry, which he began to translate.<ref>O'Driscoll (1976), pp. 23–32.</ref> He was preceded by [[James Hardiman]], who in 1831 had published the first comprehensive attempt to collect popular poetry in Irish.<ref>O'Driscoll (1976), pp. 43–44.</ref> These and other attempts supplied a bridge between the literatures of the two languages.

===The Anglo-Irish tradition (2)===

[[Maria Edgeworth]] (1767–1849) furnished a less ambiguous foundation for an Anglo-Irish literary tradition. Though not of Irish birth, she came to live there when young and closely identified with Ireland. She was a pioneer in the [[literary realism|realist novel]].

Other [[List of Irish novelists|Irish novelists]] to emerge during the 19th century include [[John Banim]], [[Gerald Griffin]], [[Charles Kickham]] and [[William Carleton]]. Their works tended to reflect the views of the middle class or gentry and they wrote what came to be termed "novels of the big house". Carleton was an exception, and his ''Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry'' showed life on the other side of the social divide. [[Bram Stoker]], the author of ''[[Dracula]]'', was outside both traditions, as was the early work of [[Lord Dunsany]]. One of the premier ghost story writers of the nineteenth century was [[Sheridan Le Fanu]], whose works include ''[[Uncle Silas]]'' and ''[[Carmilla]]''.

The novels and stories, mostly humorous, of [[Edith Anna Somerville|Edith Somerville]] and [[Violet Florence Martin]] (who wrote together as Martin Ross), are among the most accomplished products of Anglo-Irish literature, though written exclusively from the viewpoint of the "big house". In 1894 they published ''[[The Real Charlotte]]''.

[[George Moore (novelist)|George Moore]] spent much of his early career in Paris and was one of the first writers to use the techniques of the French realist novelists in English.

[[Oscar Wilde]] (1854–1900), born and educated in Ireland, spent the latter half of his life in England. His plays are distinguished for their wit, and he was also a poet.

The growth of Irish cultural nationalism towards the end of the 19th century, culminating in the [[Gaelic Revival]], had a marked influence on Irish writing in English, and contributed to the [[Irish Literary Revival]]. This can be clearly seen in the plays of [[J.M. Synge]] (1871–1909), who spent some time in the Irish-speaking [[Aran Islands]], and in the early poetry of [[William Butler Yeats]] (1865–1939), where Irish mythology is used in a personal and idiosyncratic way.

===Literature in Irish===
((main|Modern literature in Irish|Gaelic Revival))
There was a resurgence of interest in the Irish language in the late 19th century with the [[Gaelic Revival]]. This had much to do with the founding in 1893 of the [[Gaelic League]] (''Conradh na Gaeilge''). The League insisted that the identity of Ireland was intimately bound up with the Irish language, which should be modernised and used as a vehicle of contemporary culture. This led to the publication of thousands of books and pamphlets in Irish, providing the foundation of a new literature in the coming decades.<ref>Ó Conluain and Ó Céileachair (1976), pp. 133–135.</ref>

[[Patrick Pearse]] (1879–1916), teacher, barrister and revolutionary, was a pioneer of modernist literature in Irish. He was followed by, among others, [[Pádraic Ó Conaire]] (1881–1928), an individualist with a strongly European bent. One of the finest writers to emerge in Irish at the time was [[Seosamh Mac Grianna]] (1900–1990), writer of a powerful autobiography and accomplished novels, though his creative period was cut short by illness. His brother [[Séamus Ó Grianna]] (1889–1969) was more prolific.

This period also saw remarkable autobiographies from the remote Irish-speaking areas of the south-west – those of [[Tomás Ó Criomhthain]] (1858–1937), [[Peig Sayers]] (1873–1958) and [[Muiris Ó Súilleabháin]] (1904–1950).

[[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]] (1906–1970), a language activist, is generally acknowledged as the doyen (and most difficult) of modern writers in Irish, and has been compared to James Joyce. He produced short stories, two novels and some journalism. [[Máirtín Ó Direáin]] (1910–1988), [[Máire Mhac an tSaoi]] (1922-2021) and [[Seán Ó Ríordáin]] (1916–1977) were three of the finest poets of that generation. [[Eoghan Ó Tuairisc]] (1919–1982), who wrote both in Irish and English, was noted for his readiness to experiment in both prose and verse. [[Flann O'Brien]] (1911–66), from [[Northern Ireland]], published an Irish language novel ''[[An Béal Bocht]]'' under the name Myles na gCopaleen.

[[Caitlín Maude]] (1941–1982) and [[Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill]] (b. 1952) may be seen as representatives of a new generation of poets, conscious of tradition but modernist in outlook. The best known of that generation was possibly [[Michael Hartnett]] (1941–1999), who wrote both in Irish and English, abandoning the latter altogether for a time.

Writing in Irish now encompasses a broad range of subjects and genres, with more attention being directed to younger readers. The traditional Irish-speaking areas ([[Gaeltacht]]) are now less important as a source of authors and themes. Urban Irish speakers are in the ascendancy, and it is likely that this will determine the nature of the literature.

===Literature in Ulster Scots (2)===

In Ulster Scots-speaking areas there was traditionally a considerable demand for the work of Scottish poets, such as [[Allan Ramsay (1686-1758)|Allan Ramsay]] and [[Robert Burns]], often in locally printed editions. This was complemented with locally written work, the most prominent being the [[Weaver Poets|rhyming weaver]] poetry, of which, some 60 to 70 volumes were published between 1750 and 1850, the peak being in the decades 1810 to 1840.<ref name="Rhyming Weavers, Hewitt, 1974"/> These weaver poets looked to Scotland for their cultural and literary models and were not simple imitators but clearly inheritors of the same literary tradition following the same poetic and orthographic practices. It is not always immediately possible to distinguish traditional Scots writing from Scotland and Ulster.<ref name="Robinson 2003"/>

Among the ''rhyming weavers'' were James Campbell (1758–1818), [[James Orr (poet)|James Orr]] (1770–1816), Thomas Beggs (1749–1847), David Herbison (1800–1880), [[Hugh Porter (poet)|Hugh Porter]] (1780–1839) and [[Andrew McKenzie]] (1780–1839). Scots was also used in the narrative by novelists such as W. G. Lyttle (1844–1896) and Archibald McIlroy (1860–1915). By the middle of the 19th century the ''[[Kailyard school]]'' of prose had become the dominant literary genre, overtaking poetry. This was a tradition shared with Scotland which continued into the early 20th century.<ref name="Robinson 2003"/>

A somewhat diminished tradition of vernacular poetry survived into the 20th century in the work of poets such as Adam Lynn, author of the 1911 collection ''Random Rhymes frae Cullybackey'', John Stevenson (died 1932), writing as "Pat M'Carty"<ref name="Ferguson 2008, p. 21">Ferguson (ed.) 2008, ''Ulster-Scots Writing'', Dublin, p. 21 ((ISBN|978-1-84682-074-8))</ref> and John Clifford (1900–1983) from East Antrim.<ref name="Ferguson 2008, p. 21"/>
A prolific writer and poet, [[W. F. Marshall]] (8 May 1888 – January 1959) was known as "The Bard of [[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]". Marshall composed poems such as ''[[Hi Uncle Sam]]'', ''Me an' me Da'' (subtitled ''Livin' in Drumlister''), ''Sarah Ann'' and ''Our Son''. He was a leading authority on [[Mid Ulster English]] (the predominant dialect of Ulster).

The polarising effects of the politics of the use of English and Irish language traditions limited academic and public interest until the studies of [[John Hewitt (poet)|John Hewitt]] from the 1950s onwards. Further impetus was given by more generalised exploration of non-"Irish" and non-"English" cultural identities in the latter decades of the 20th century.

In the late 20th century the [[Ulster Scots people|Ulster Scots]] poetic tradition was revived, albeit often replacing the traditional [[Modern Scots]] orthographic practice with a series of contradictory [[idiolect]]s.<ref name="abdn.ac.uk">[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/riiss/Reviews/Falconer_Frank%20Ferguson.shtml Gavin Falconer (2008)  review of "Frank Ferguson, Ulster-Scots Writing: an anthology"] ((webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004160937/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/riiss/Reviews/Falconer_Frank%20Ferguson.shtml |date= 4 October 2013 ))</ref> [[James Fenton (Ulster-Scots poet)|James Fenton]]'s poetry, at times lively, contented, wistful, is written in contemporary Ulster Scots,<ref name="Robinson 2003"/> mostly using a [[blank verse]] form, but also occasionally the Habbie stanza.<ref name="Robinson 2003"/> He employs an orthography that presents the reader with the difficult combination of [[eye dialect]], dense Scots, and a greater variety of verse forms than employed hitherto.<ref name="abdn.ac.uk"/> [[Michael Longley]] is another poet who has made use of Ulster Scots in his work.

Philip Robinson's (1946– ) writing has been described as verging on "[[Postmodern literature|post-modern]] kailyard".<ref name="Ferguson 2008">''Ulster-Scots Writing'', ed. Ferguson, Dublin 2008 ((ISBN|978-1-84682-074-8))</ref> He has produced a trilogy of novels ''Wake the Tribe o Dan'' (1998), ''The Back Streets o the Claw'' (2000) and ''The Man frae the Ministry'' (2005), as well as story books for children ''Esther, Quaen o tha Ulidian Pechts'' and ''Fergus an tha Stane o Destinie'', and two volumes of poetry ''Alang the Shore'' (2005) and ''Oul Licht, New Licht'' (2009).<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.ulsterscotslanguage.com/en/texts/biography/philip-robinson/|title=Philip Robinson|website=Ulsterscotslanguage.com|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref>

A team in Belfast has begun translating portions of the Bible into Ulster Scots. The Gospel of Luke was published in 2009.

=== Irish literature in English (20th century)===
((main|Irish fiction|Irish poetry))
((more citations needed section|date=November 2013))
[[File:Joyce oconnell dublin.jpg|thumb|upright|120px|James Joyce]]
The poet [[W. B. Yeats]] was initially influenced by the [[Pre-Raphaelites]] and made use of Irish "peasant folk traditions and ancient Celtic myth" in his early poetry.<ref>''The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature'', ed. Marion Wynne-Davies. (New York: Prentice Hall, 1990), pp. 1036–7.</ref> Subsequently, he was drawn to the "intellectually more vigorous" poetry of [[John Donne]], along with [[Ezra Pound]] and [[T. S. Eliot]], and became one of the greatest 20th-century [[modernist]] poets.<ref>''The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature'' (1990), pp. 1036-7.</ref> Though Yeats was an [[Anglo-Irish]] Protestant he was deeply affected by the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916 and supported the independence of Ireland.<ref>''The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature'' (1990), p.1037.</ref> He received the Nobel Prize for literature in 1923 and was a member of the Irish Senate from 1922 to 1928.<ref>''The Oxford Companion to English Literature'', ed. Margaret Drabble. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p.1104.</ref>

A group of early 20th-century Irish poets worth noting are those associated with the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916. Three of the Republican leadership, [[Patrick Pearse]] (1879–1916), [[Joseph Mary Plunkett]] (1879–1916) and [[Thomas MacDonagh]] (1878–1916), were noted poets.<ref>((cite news |title=Poets Marched in the Van of Irish Revolt |date=7 May 1916 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A04E2DC1439E233A25754C0A9639C946796D6CF |access-date=8 August 2008 | first=Joyce | last=Kilmer )) Available online free in the pre-1922 NYT archives.</ref> It was to be Yeats' earlier Celtic mode that was to be most influential. Among the most prominent followers of the early Yeats were [[Padraic Colum]] (1881–1972),<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/padraic-colum|title=Padraic Colum|date=15 January 2018|website=Poetry Foundation|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref> [[F. R. Higgins]] (1896–1941),<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.irishcultureandcustoms.com/Poetry/FRHiggins.html|title=Frederick Robert Higgins Poetry Irish culture and customs - World Cultures European|website=Irishcultureandcustoms.com|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref> and [[Austin Clarke (poet)|Austin Clarke]] (1896–1974).<ref>Harmon, Maurice. ''Austin Clarke, 1896–1974: A Critical Introduction.'' Wolfhound Press, 1989.</ref>

Irish poetic [[Modernism]] took its lead not from Yeats but from Joyce. The 1930s saw the emergence of a generation of writers who engaged in experimental writing as a matter of course. The best known of these is [[Samuel Beckett]] (1906–1989), who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1969. Beckett's poetry, while not inconsiderable, is not what he is best known for. The most significant of the second generation Modernist Irish poets who first published in the 1920s and 1930s include [[Brian Coffey]] (1905–1995), [[Denis Devlin]] (1908–1959), [[Thomas MacGreevy]] (1893–1967), [[Blanaid Salkeld]] (1880–1959), and [[Mary Devenport O'Neill]] (1879–1967).<ref>Alex David "The Irish Modernists" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary Irish Poetry'', ed. Matthew Campbell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp76-93.</ref>

While Yeats and his followers wrote about an essentially aristocratic Gaelic Ireland, the reality was that the actual Ireland of the 1930s and 1940s was a society of small farmers and shopkeepers. Inevitably, a generation of poets who rebelled against the example of Yeats, but who were not Modernist by inclination, emerged from this environment. [[Patrick Kavanagh]] (1904–1967), who came from a small farm, wrote about the narrowness and frustrations of rural life.<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/patrick-kavanagh|title=Patrick Kavanagh|date=15 January 2018|website=Poetry Foundation|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref> A new generation of poets emerged from the late 1950s onward, which included [[Anthony Cronin]], [[Pearse Hutchinson]], [[John Jordan (poet)|John Jordan]], and [[Thomas Kinsella]], most of whom were based in Dublin in the 1960s and 1970s. In Dublin a number of new literary magazines were founded in the 1960s; ''[[Poetry Ireland]]'', ''Arena'', ''The Lace Curtain'', and in the 1970s, ''Cyphers''.

Though the novels of [[Forrest Reid]] (1875–1947) are not necessarily well known today, he has been labelled 'the first Ulster novelist of European stature', and comparisons have been drawn between his own [[Bildungsroman|coming of age novel]] of Protestant Belfast, ''Following Darkness'' (1912), and [[James Joyce]]'s seminal novel of growing up in [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Dublin]], ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' (1924). Reid's fiction, which often uses submerged narratives to explore male beauty and love, can be placed within the historical context of the emergence of a more explicit expression of homosexuality in English literature in the 20th century.<ref name="UE">((cite web | title=Guide to Print Collections – Forrest Reid Collection | work=University of Exeter| url=http://library.exeter.ac.uk/special/guides/books/reid.html | access-date=5 July 2009))</ref>

[[James Joyce]] (1882–1941) is one of the most significant novelists of the first half of the 20th century, and a major pioneer in the use of the "[[Stream of consciousness writing|stream of consciousness]]" technique in his famous novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' (1922). ''Ulysses'' has been described as "a demonstration and summation of the entire [[Modernist]] movement".<ref>Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age of Modernism". [[James Joyce Quarterly]] (University of Tulsa) 10 (1): p. 176.</ref> Joyce also wrote ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' (1939), ''[[Dubliners]]'' (1914), and the semi-autobiographical ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' (1914–15). ''Ulysses'', often considered to be the greatest novel of the 20th century, is the story of a day in the life of a city, [[Dublin]]. Told in a dazzling array of styles, it was a landmark book in the development of literary [[modernism]].<ref>Richard Ellmann, ''James Joyce''. Oxford University Press, revised edition (1983).</ref> If ''Ulysses'' is the story of a day, ''Finnegans Wake'' is a night epic, partaking in the logic of dreams and written in an invented language which parodies English, Irish and Latin.<ref>James Mercanton. ''Les heures de James Joyce'', Diffusion PUF., 1967, p.233.</ref>

Joyce's high [[modernist]] style had its influence on coming generations of Irish novelists, most notably [[Samuel Beckett]] (1906–1989), Brian O'Nolan (1911–66) (who published as [[Flann O'Brien]] and as Myles na gCopaleen), and [[Aidan Higgins]] (1927–2015). O'Nolan was bilingual and his fiction clearly shows the mark of the native tradition, particularly in the imaginative quality of his storytelling and the biting edge of his satire in works such as ''[[An Béal Bocht]]''. [[Samuel Beckett]], who won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1969, is one of the great figures in 20th-century world literature. Perhaps best known for his plays, he also wrote works of fiction, including ''[[Watt (novel)|Watt]]'' (1953) and his trilogy ''[[Molloy (novel)|Molloy]]'' (1951), ''[[Malone Dies]]''  (1956) and ''[[The Unnamable (novel)|The Unnamable]]'' (1960), all three of which were first written, and published, in French.

The big house novel prospered into the 20th century, and [[Aidan Higgins]]' (1927–2015) first novel ''[[Langrishe, Go Down]]'' (1966) is an experimental example of the ''genre''. More conventional exponents include [[Elizabeth Bowen]] (1899–73) and [[Molly Keane]] (1904–96) (writing as M.J. Farrell).

With the rise of the [[Irish Free State]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]], more novelists from the lower social classes began to emerge. Frequently, these authors wrote of the narrow, circumscribed lives of the lower-middle classes and small farmers. Exponents of this style range from [[Brinsley MacNamara]] (1890–1963) to [[John McGahern]] (1934–2006). Other notable novelists of the late 20th and early 21st century include [[John Banville]], [[Sebastian Barry]], [[Seamus Deane]], [[Dermot Healy]], [[Jennifer Johnston (novelist)|Jennifer Johnston]], [[Patrick McCabe (novelist)|Patrick McCabe]], [[Edna O'Brien]], [[Colm Tóibín]], and [[William Trevor]].

The [[Irish short story]] has proved a popular genre, with well-known practitioners including [[Frank O'Connor]], [[Seán Ó Faoláin]], and [[William Trevor]].

A total of four Irish writers have won the Nobel Prize for Literature – [[W.B. Yeats]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Samuel Beckett]] and [[Seamus Heaney]].

===Literature of Northern Ireland===
((main|Literature of Northern Ireland))

After 1922 Ireland was partitioned into the independent [[Irish Free State]], and [[Northern Ireland]], which retained a constitutional connection to the United Kingdom. [[Northern Ireland]] has for several centuries consisted of two distinct communities, [[Protestant]], [[Ulster Scots people|Ulster Scots]] and [[Irish Catholics]]. While the Protestants majority emphasize the constitutional ties to the United Kingdom, most Catholics would prefer a [[United Ireland]]. The long-standing cultural and political division led to sectarian violence in the late 1960s known as [[The Troubles]], which officially ended in 1998, though sporadic violence has continued. This cultural division created, long before 1922, two distinct literary cultures.

C. S. Lewis (1898–1963) and Louis MacNeice (1907–63) are two writers who were born and raised in Northern Ireland, but whose careers took them to England. [[C. S. Lewis]] was a poet, novelist, academic, [[medieval studies|medievalist]], literary critic, essayist, [[lay theologian]], and [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]]. Born in [[Belfast]], he held academic positions at both [[Oxford University]], and [[Cambridge University]]. He is best known both for his fictional work, especially ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' (1942), ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' (1949–54), and ''[[The Space Trilogy]]'' (1938–45), and for his non-fiction Christian apologetics, such as ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]'', and ''[[The Problem of Pain]]''. His faith had a profound effect on his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim.

[[Louis MacNeice]] was a poet and playwright. He was part of the generation of "[[thirties poets]]" that included [[W. H. Auden]], [[Stephen Spender]] and [[Cecil Day-Lewis]], nicknamed "MacSpaunday" as a group – a name invented by [[Roy Campbell (poet)|Roy Campbell]], in his ''Talking Bronco'' (1946). His body of work was widely appreciated by the public during his lifetime. Never as overtly (or simplistically) political as some of his contemporaries, his work shows a humane opposition to totalitarianism as well as an acute awareness of his Irish roots. MacNeice felt estranged from the [[Presbyterian Church in Ireland|Presbyterian Northern Ireland]], with its "voodoo of the [[Orange walk|Orange bands]]",<ref>((cite book|last=MacNeice|first=Louis|title=Autumn Journal|url=https://archive.org/details/autumnjournal0000macn|url-access=registration|year=1939))</ref> but felt caught between British and Irish identities.<ref name=nonmetropolitan>((cite book|title=Poetry in the British Isles: Non-Metropolitan Perspectives|year=1995|publisher=University of Wales Press|isbn=0708312667))</ref>

[[File:Derek Mahon in Moscow.JPG|thumb|175px|Derek Mahon]]

[[Northern Ireland]] has also produced a number of significant poets since 1945, including [[John Hewitt (poet)|John Hewitt]], [[John Montague (poet)|John Montague]], [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Derek Mahon]], [[Paul Muldoon]], [[James Fenton (Ulster-Scots poet)|James Fenton]], [[Michael Longley]], [[Frank Ormsby]], [[Ciarán Carson]] and [[Medbh McGuckian]]. John Hewitt (1907–87), whom many consider to be the founding father of Northern Irish poetry, was born in [[Belfast]], and began publishing in the 1940s. Hewitt was appointed the first writer-in-residence at [[Queen's University, Belfast]] in 1976. His collections include ''The Day of the Corncrake'' (1969) and ''Out of My Time: Poems 1969 to 1974'' (1974) and his ''Collected Poems'' in 1991.

[[John Montague (poet)|John Montague]] (1929–2016) was born in New York and brought up in [[County Tyrone]]. He has published a number of volumes of poetry, two collections of short stories and two volumes of memoir. Montague published his first collection in 1958 and the second in 1967. In 1998 he became the first occupant of the Ireland Chair of Poetry<ref name="Ireland Chair of Poetry John Montague">((Cite web|url=http://irelandchairofpoetry.org/j_montague.php |title=Poet Laureate |access-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005020923/http://irelandchairofpoetry.org/j_montague.php |archive-date= 5 October 2013 ))</ref> (virtually Ireland's [[Poet laureate]]). Seamus Heaney (1939–2013) is the most famous of the poets who came to prominence in the 1960s and won the Nobel prize in 1995. In the 1960s Heaney, Longley, Muldoon, and others, belonged to the so-called [[The Belfast Group|Belfast Group]]. Heaney in his verse translation of ''Beowulf'' (2000) uses words from his Ulster speech.<ref>((cite book|last=Heaney|first=Seamus|title=Beowulf|year=2000|publisher=W.W. Norton|location=New York|isbn=0393320979|url=https://archive.org/details/beowulf00seam))</ref> A Catholic from [[Northern Ireland]], Heaney rejected his British identity and lived in the Republic of Ireland for much of his later life.<ref>Sameer Rahim, "Interview with Seamus Heaney". ''The Telegraph'', 11 April 2009.</ref>

James Fenton's poetry is written in contemporary [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]], and Michael Longley (1939– ) has experimented with Ulster Scots for the translation of Classical verse, as in his 1995 collection ''The Ghost Orchid''. Longley has spoken of his identity as a Northern Irish poet: "some of the time I feel British and some of the time I feel Irish. But most of the time I feel neither and the marvellous thing about the [[Good Friday agreement]] was that it allowed me to feel more of each if I wanted to."<ref>((cite news|title=Middle man|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/aug/21/featuresreviews.guardianreview15?INTCMP=SRCH|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=19 January 2013|location=London|first=Nicholas|last=Wroe|date=21 August 2004))</ref> He was awarded the [[Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry]] in 2001. [[Medbh McGuckian]]'s, (born Maeve McCaughan, 1950) first published poems appeared in two pamphlets in 1980, the year in which she received an [[Eric Gregory Award]]. Medbh McGuckian's first major collection, ''The Flower Master'' (1982), was awarded a Rooney prize for Irish Literature, an Ireland Arts Council Award (both 1982) and an [[Alice Hunt Bartlett Prize]] (1983). She is also the winner of the 1989 [[Cheltenham Prize]] for her collection ''On Ballycastle Beach'', and has translated into English (with [[Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin]]) ''The Water Horse'' (1999), a selection of poems in Irish by [[Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill]]. Among her recent collections are ''The Currach Requires No Harbours'' (2007), and ''My Love Has Fared Inland'' (2008). [[Paul Muldoon]] (1951– ) has published over thirty collections and won a [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]] and the [[T. S. Eliot Prize]]. He held the post of [[Oxford Professor of Poetry]] from 1999 to 2004. [[Derek Mahon]]'s (1941– ) first collection ''Twelve Poems'' appeared in 1965. His poetry, which is influenced by [[Louis MacNeice]] and [[W. H. Auden]], is "often bleak and uncompromising".<ref>''The Oxford Companion to English Literature'', ed. Margaret Drabble, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p.616.</ref> Though Mahon was not an active member of [[The Belfast Group]], he associated with the two members, Heaney and Longley, in the 1960s.<ref>''The Oxford Companion to English Literature'', (1996), p.616; beck.library.emory.edu/BelfastGroup/web/html/overview.html</ref> Ciarán Carson's poem ''[[Belfast Confetti (poem)|Belfast Confetti]]'', about the aftermath of an IRA bomb, won ''[[The Irish Times]]''' [[Irish Literature Prize for Poetry]] in 1990.<ref>((cite web |url=http://www.literature.britishcouncil.org/ciaran-carson |title=Ciaran Carson &#124; British Council Literature |access-date=2013-10-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301215446/http://literature.britishcouncil.org/ciaran-carson |archive-date=1 March 2014 ))</ref>

The most significant dramatist from Northern Ireland is [[Brian Friel]] (1929–2015), from [[Omagh]], [[County Tyrone]],<ref name="times-friel-letters-exile">Nightingale, Benedict. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article5774491.ece "Brian Friel's letters from an internal exile"]. ''The Times''. 23 February 2009. "But if it fuses warmth, humour and melancholy as seamlessly as it should, it will make a worthy birthday gift for Friel, who has just turned 80, and justify his status as one of Ireland's seven Saoi of the Aosdána, meaning that he can wear the Golden Torc round his neck and is now officially what we fans know him to be: a Wise Man of the People of Art and, maybe, the greatest living English-language dramatist."</ref><ref name="londonderry-sentinel-bidding">[http://www.londonderrysentinel.co.uk/news/local/londonderry_beats_norwich_sheffield_and_birmingham_to_the_bidding_punch_1_2101970 "Londonderry beats Norwich, Sheffield and Birmingham to the bidding punch"]. ''Londonderry Sentinel''. 21 May 2010.</ref><ref name="Seeing, in Brian Friel's Ballybeg">Canby, Vincent.[http://theater.nytimes.com/mem/theater/treview.html?res=9A01E7DB1339F93BA35752C0A960958260 "Seeing, in Brian Friel's Ballybeg"]. ''The New York Times''. 8 January 1996. "Brian Friel has been recognized as Ireland's greatest living playwright almost since the first production of "Philadelphia, Here I Come!" in Dublin in 1964. In succeeding years he has dazzled us with plays that speak in a language of unequaled poetic beauty and intensity. Such dramas as "Translations," "Dancing at Lughnasa" and "Wonderful Tennessee," among others, have given him a privileged place in our theater."</ref><ref>Kemp, Conrad. [http://mg.co.za/article/2010-06-25-in-the-beginning-was-image "In the beginning was the image"]. ''Mail & Guardian''. 25 June 2010. "Brian Friel, who wrote Translations and Philadelphia ... Here I Come, and who is regarded by many as one of the world's greatest living playwrights, has suggested that there is, in fact, no real need for a director on a production."</ref> hailed by the English-speaking world as an "Irish [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]]",<ref name="three-flavors-emotion-aristocrats">Winer, Linda.[https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/43382752.html?dids=43382752:43382752&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jul+23%2C+1999&author=Linda+Winer.+STAFF+WRITER&pub=Newsday+(Combined+editions)&desc=Three+Flavors+of+Emotion+in+Friel's+Old+Ballybeg&pqatl=google "Three Flavors of Emotion in Friel's Old Ballybeg"] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313040820/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/43382752.html?dids=43382752%3A43382752&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS%3AFT&type=current&date=Jul+23%2C+1999&author=Linda+Winer.+STAFF+WRITER&pub=Newsday+%28Combined+editions%29&desc=Three+Flavors+of+Emotion+in+Friel%27s+Old+Ballybeg&pqatl=google |date=13 March 2013 )). ''Newsday''. 23 July 2009. "FOR THOSE OF US who never quite understood why Brian Friel is called "the Irish Chekhov," here is "Aristocrats" to explain – if not actually justify – the compliment."</ref> and "the universally accented voice of Ireland".<ref name="friel-furrow-heart">O'Kelly, Emer. [http://www.independent.ie/incoming/friels-deep-furrow-cuts-to-our-heart-1879651.html "Friel's deep furrow cuts to our heart"]. ''Sunday Independent''. 6 September 2009.</ref> Friel is best known for plays such as ''[[Philadelphia, Here I Come!]]'' and ''[[Dancing at Lughnasa]]'' but has written more than thirty plays in a six-decade spanning career that has seen him elected [[Saoi]] of [[Aosdána]]. His plays have been a regular feature on Broadway.<ref>Lawson, Carol. [https://www.nytimes.com/1979/01/12/archives/broadway-ed-flanders-reunited-with-jose-quintero-for-faith-healer.html "Broadway; Ed Flanders reunited with Jose Quintero for 'Faith Healer.'"]. ''The New York Times''. 12 January 1979. "ALL the pieces are falling into place for Brian Friel's new play, "Faith Healer," which opens 5 April on Broadway."</ref><ref>McKay, Mary-Jayne. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/03/12/broadcasts/main6293310.shtml "Where Literature Is Legend"]. CBS News. 16 March 2010. "Brian Friel's Dancing at Lughnasa had a long run on Broadway"</ref><ref>Osborne, Robert. [https://www.reuters.com/article/review-osborne-dc-idUSN0532107520070306 "Carroll does cabaret"]. Reuters/''[[The Hollywood Reporter]]''. 5 March 2007. "Final curtains fall Sunday on three Broadway shows: Brian Friel's "Translations" at the Biltmore; "The Apple Tree," with Kristin Chenoweth, at Studio 54; David Hare's "The Vertical Hour," with Julienne Moore and Bill Nighy, at the Music Box, the latter directed by Sam Mendes"</ref><ref>Staunton, Denis. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121106065841/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-24841419.html "Three plays carry Irish hopes of Broadway honours"]. ''The Irish Times''. 10 June 2006.</ref>

Among the most important novelists from Northern Ireland are [[Flann O'Brien]] (1911–66), [[Brian Moore (novelist)|Brian Moore]] (1921–1999), and [[Bernard MacLaverty]] (1942–). [[Flann O'Brien]], Brian O'Nolan, ((lang-ga|Brian Ó Nualláin)), was a novelist, playwright and satirist, and is considered a major figure in twentieth century Irish literature. Born in [[Strabane]], [[County Tyrone]], he also is regarded as a key figure in [[postmodern literature]].<ref>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2011/10/flann-obrien.html "Celebrating Flann O'Brien"], ''Los Angeles Times'', 13 October 2011.</ref> His English language novels, such as ''[[At Swim-Two-Birds]]'', and ''[[The Third Policeman]]'', were written under the ''[[Pen name|nom de plume]]'' Flann O'Brien. His many satirical columns in ''[[The Irish Times]]'' and an Irish language novel ''[[An Béal Bocht]]'' were written under the name Myles na gCopaleen. O'Nolan's novels have attracted a wide following for their bizarre humour and Modernist [[metafiction]]. As a novelist, O'Nolan was powerfully influenced by [[James Joyce]]. He was nonetheless sceptical of the cult of Joyce, which overshadows much of Irish writing, saying "I declare to God if I hear that name Joyce one more time I will surely froth at the gob."  [[Brian Moore (novelist)|Brian Moore]] was also a screenwriter<ref name="BBCObit">((cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/253500.stm|title=Brian Moore: Forever influenced by loss of faith|work=[[BBC Online]]|date=12 January 1999|access-date=23 September 2011))</ref><ref name="Guardian">((cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-brian-moore-1046881.html|title=Obituary: Shores of Exile|author=Cronin, John|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=13 January 1999|access-date=23 September 2011|location=London))</ref><ref name="Independent">((cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/1999/jan/13/fiction|title=Obituary: Brian Moore|author=Walsh, John|work=[[The Independent]]|date=14 January 1999|access-date=31 August 2012|location=London))</ref> and emigrated to Canada, where he lived from 1948 to 1958, and wrote his first novels.<ref>((cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005416|title= Brian Moore|encyclopedia= [[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|author= Lynch, Gerald|access-date= 28 August 2012|archive-date= 20 May 2006|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060520045517/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005416|url-status= dead))</ref> He then moved to the United States. He was acclaimed for the descriptions in his novels of life in Northern Ireland after the [[Second World War]], in particular his explorations of the inter-communal divisions of [[The Troubles]]. He was awarded the [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] in 1975 and the inaugural [[Sunday Express Book of the Year]] award in 1987, and he was [[List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction|shortlisted for the Booker Prize three times (in 1976, 1987 and 1990)]]. His novel ''[[Judith Hearne]]'' (1955) is set in Belfast. [[Bernard MacLaverty]], from [[Belfast]], has written the novels ''[[Cal (novel)|Cal]]''; ''[[Lamb (novel)|Lamb]]'' (1983), which describes the experiences of a young [[Irish Catholic]] involved with the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]; ''[[Grace Notes]]'', which was shortlisted for the 1997 [[Booker Prize]], and ''The Anatomy School''. He has also written five acclaimed collections of short stories, the most recent of which is ''Matters of Life & Death''. He has lived in Scotland since 1975.

Other noteworthy writers from Northern Ireland include poet [[Robert Greacen]] (1920–2008), novelist [[Bob Shaw]] (1931–96),<ref name="Shaw">((harvnb|Nicholls|1981))</ref> and science fiction novelist [[Ian McDonald (author)|Ian McDonald]] (1960). [[Robert Greacen]], along with [[Valentin Iremonger]], edited an important anthology, ''Contemporary Irish Poetry'' in 1949. Robert Greacen was born in [[Derry]], lived in Belfast in his youth and then in London during the 1950s, 60s and 70s. He won the Irish Times Prize for Poetry in 1995 for his ''Collected Poems'', and subsequently he moved to Dublin when he was elected a member of ''[[Aosdana]]''. Shaw was a science fiction author, noted for his originality and wit. He won the [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer]] in 1979 and 1980. His short story "[[Light of Other Days]]" was a [[Hugo Award]] nominee in 1967, as was his novel ''[[The Ragged Astronauts]]'' in 1987.

===Theatre===
((Main|Irish theatre))
[[File:George bernard shaw.jpg|thumbnail|120px|George Bernard Shaw]]
The first well-documented instance of a theatrical production in Ireland is a 1601 staging of ''[[Gorboduc (play)|Gorboduc]]'' presented by [[Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon|Lord Mountjoy]] [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland|Lord Deputy of Ireland]] in the Great Hall in [[Dublin Castle]]. Mountjoy started a fashion, and private performances became quite commonplace in great houses all over Ireland over the following thirty years. The [[Werburgh Street Theatre]] in Dublin is generally identified as the "first custom-built theatre in the city," "the only pre-[[Restoration (Ireland)|Restoration]] playhouse outside London," and the "first Irish playhouse." The Werburgh Street Theatre was established by [[John Ogilby]] at least by 1637 and perhaps as early as 1634.<ref>Alan J. Fletcher, ''Drama, Performance, and Polity in Pre-Cromwellian Ireland,'' Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1999; pp. 261–4.</ref>

The earliest Irish-born dramatists of note were: [[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]] (1670–1729), author of ''[[The Way of the World]]'' (1700) and one of the most interesting writers of [[Restoration comedy|Restoration comedies]] in London; [[Oliver Goldsmith]] (1730–74) author of ''[[The Good-Natur'd Man]]'' (1768) and ''[[She Stoops to Conquer]]'' (1773); [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]] (1751–1816), known for  ''[[The Rivals]]'', and ''[[The School for Scandal]]''. Goldsmith and Sheridan were two of the most successful playwrights on the London stage in the 18th century.

In the 19th century, [[Dion Boucicault]] (1820–90) was famed for his [[melodrama]]s. By the later part of the 19th century, Boucicault had become known on both sides of the Atlantic as one of the most successful actor-playwright-managers then in the English-speaking theatre. ''[[The New York Times]]'' heralded him in his obituary as "the most conspicuous English dramatist of the 19th century."<ref>"Dion Boucicault", ''The New York Times'', 19 September 1890</ref>

It was in the last decade of the century that the Irish theatre came of age with the establishment in [[Dublin]] in 1899 of [[the Irish Literary Theatre]], and emergence of the dramatists [[George Bernard Shaw]] (1856–1950) and [[Oscar Wilde]] (1854–1900), though both wrote for the London theatre. Shaw's career began in the last decade of the nineteenth century, and he wrote more than 60 plays. George Bernard Shaw turned the [[Edwardian]] theatre into an arena for debate about important political and social issues, like marriage, class, "the morality of armaments and war" and the rights of women.<ref>((cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188217/English-literature|title=English literature - History, Authors, Books, & Periods|website=Britannica.com|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref>

In 1903 a number of playwrights, actors and staff from several companies went on to form the [[Irish National Theatre Society]], later to become the [[Abbey Theatre]]. It performed plays by [[W.B. Yeats]] (1865–1939), [[Lady Gregory]] (1852–1932), [[John Millington Synge]] (1871–1909), and [[Seán O'Casey]] (1880–1964). Equally importantly, through the introduction by Yeats, via [[Ezra Pound]], of elements of the [[Noh]] theatre of Japan, a tendency to mythologise quotidian situations, and a particularly strong focus on writings in dialects of [[Hiberno-English]], the Abbey was to create a style that held a strong fascination for future Irish dramatists.<ref>Sands, Maren. "[http://writing.colostate.edu/gallery/phantasmagoria/sands.htm The Influence of Japanese Noh Theater on Yeats]". Colorado State University. Retrieved on 15 July 2007.</ref>

Synge's most famous play, ''[[The Playboy of the Western World]]'', "caused outrage and riots when it was first performed" in Dublin in 1907.<ref>''The Oxford Companion to English Literature.'' (1996), p.781.</ref> O'Casey was a committed socialist and the first Irish playwright of note to write about the [[Dublin]] working classes. O'Casey's first accepted play, ''[[The Shadow of a Gunman]]'', which is set during the [[Irish War of Independence]], was performed at the [[Abbey Theatre]] in 1923. It was followed by ''[[Juno and the Paycock]]'' (1924) and ''[[The Plough and the Stars]]'' (1926). The former deals with the effect of the [[Irish Civil War]] on the working class poor of the city, while the latter is set in Dublin in 1916 around the [[Easter Rising]].

The [[Gate Theatre]], founded in 1928 by [[Micheál MacLiammóir]], introduced Irish audiences to many of the classics of the Irish and European stage.

The twentieth century saw a number of Irish playwrights come to prominence. These included [[Denis Johnston]] (1901–84), [[Samuel Beckett]] (1906–89), [[Brendan Behan]] (1923–64), [[Hugh Leonard]] (1926–2009), [[John B. Keane]] (1928–2002), [[Brian Friel]] (1929–2015), [[Thomas Kilroy]] (1934– ), [[Tom Murphy (playwright)|Tom Murphy]] (1935–2018), and [[Frank McGuinness]] (1953– ).

Denis Johnston's most famous plays are ''The Old Lady Says No!'' (1929), and  ''The Moon in the Yellow River'' (1931).

While there no doubt that [[Samuel Beckett]] is an Irishman he lived much of his life in France and wrote several works first in French. His most famous plays are ''[[Waiting for Godot]]'' (1955) (originally ''[[En attendant Godot]]'', 1952), ''[[Endgame (play)|Endgame]]''  (originally ''Fin de partie'') (1957), ''[[Happy Days (play)|Happy Days]]'' (1961), written in English, all of which profoundly affected British drama.

[[File:Samuel Beckett.jpg|thumbnail|120px|Samuel Beckett. Painted by Reginald Gray from life in Paris 1961.]]
In 1954, Behan's first play ''[[The Quare Fellow]]'' was produced in Dublin. It was well received; however, it was the 1956 production at [[Joan Littlewood]]'s [[Theatre Workshop]] in Stratford, London, that gained Behan a wider reputation – this was helped by a famous drunken interview on [[BBC]] television. Behan's play ''The Hostage'' (1958), his English-language adaptation of his play in Irish ''[[The Hostage (play)|An Giall]]'', met with great success internationally.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Hugh Leonard was the first major Irish writer to establish a reputation in television, writing extensively for television, including original plays, comedies, thrillers and adaptations of classic novels for British television.<ref name="Fintan O'Toole writing on the death of Hugh Leonard">((cite news|last=Fintan|first=O'Toole|newspaper=The Irish Times|title=Hugh Leonard Obituary|date=13 February 2009))</ref> He was commissioned by RTÉ to write ''Insurrection'', a 50th anniversary dramatic reconstruction of the Irish uprising of Easter 1916. Leonard's ''Silent Song'', adapted for the BBC from a short story by Frank O'Connor, won the Prix Italia in 1967.<ref name="Prix Italia Winners">((cite web|title=Prix Italia Winners |url=http://www.prixitalia.rai.it/2010/pdf/WINNERS_1949-2010.pdf |access-date=21 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022124024/http://www.prixitalia.rai.it/2010/pdf/WINNERS_1949-2010.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2013 ))</ref>

Three of Leonard's plays have been presented on Broadway: ''The Au Pair Man'' (1973), which starred [[Charles Durning]] and [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]]; ''[[Da (play)|Da]]'' (1978); and ''[[A Life (play)|A Life]]'' (1980).<ref>((IBDB name|6394))</ref> Of these, ''Da'', which originated off-off-Broadway at the [[Hudson Guild|Hudson Guild Theatre]] before transferring to the [[Morosco Theatre]], was the most successful, running for 20 months and 697 performances, then touring the United States for ten months.<ref>((cite web |url=https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-production/4057 |title=''Da'' |website=IBDB.com |publisher=[[Internet Broadway Database]] ))</ref> It earned Leonard both a [[Tony Award]] and a [[Drama Desk Award]] for Best Play.<ref>IBDB [http://ibdb.com/awardproduction.asp?id=4057 Da:Awards]</ref> It was made into a film in 1988.

Brian Friel, from [[Northern Ireland]], has been recognised as a major Irish and English-language playwright almost since the first production of "[[Philadelphia, Here I Come!]]" in Dublin in 1964.<ref>Nightingale, Benedict. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article5774491.ece "Brian Friel's letters from an internal exile"]. ''The Times''. 23 February 2009; "Seeing, in Brian Friel's Ballybeg". ''The New York Times''. 8 January 1996.</ref>

Tom Murphy is a major contemporary playwright<ref>((cite news |last= McKeon |first= Belinda|date=9 July 2012 |title= Home to Darkness: An Interview with Playwright Tom Murphy |url= http://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2012/07/09/home-to-darkness-an-interview-with-playwright-tom-murphy/ |newspaper= The Paris Review |access-date=19 October 2013 ))</ref> and was honoured by the Abbey Theatre in 2001 by a retrospective season of six of his plays. His plays include the historical epic ''[[Famine]]'' (1968), which deals with the Great Famine between 1846 and spring 1847,  ''[[The Sanctuary Lamp]]'' (1975), ''[[The Gigli Concert]]'' (1983) and  ''Bailegangaire'' (1985).

Frank McGuinness first came to prominence with his play ''The Factory Girls'', but established his reputation with his play about World War I, ''[[Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme]]'', which was staged in Dublin's [[Abbey Theatre]] in 1985 and internationally. The play made a name for him when it was performed at Hampstead Theatre.<ref>Maxwell, Dominic. [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/theatre/article6570194.ece "Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme at Hampstead Theatre, NW3"]. ''The Times''. Retrieved on 25 June 2009.</ref> It won numerous awards including the [[Evening Standard|London Evening Standard]] "Award for Most Promising Playwright" for McGuinness.

Since the 1970s, a number of companies have emerged to challenge the Abbey's dominance and introduce different styles and approaches. These include [[Focus Theatre]], The Children's T Company, the Project Theatre Company, [[Druid Theatre]], Rough Magic, TEAM, Charabanc, and [[Field Day Theatre Company|Field Day]]. These companies have nurtured a number of writers, actors, and directors who have since gone on to be successful in London, Broadway and Hollywood.

;Irish language theatre
Conventional drama did not exist in Irish before the 20th century. The Gaelic Revival stimulated the writing of plays, aided by the founding in 1928 of [[Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], a theatre dedicated to the Irish language. The Abbey Theatre itself was reconstituted as a bilingual national theatre in the 1940s under [[Ernest Blythe]], but the Irish language element declined in importance.<ref>Hoch, John C. (2006). ''Celtic Culture: An Historical Encyclopedia''. ABC-CLIO. pp. 980–981 ((ISBN|978-1-85109-440-0))</ref>

In 1957, Behan's play in the Irish language ''[[The Hostage (play)|An Giall]]'' had its debut at Dublin's [[Damer Hall|Damer Theatre]]. Later an English-language adaptation of ''An Giall'', ''The Hostage'', met with great success internationally.

Drama in Irish has since encountered grave difficulties, despite the existence of interesting playwrights such as [[Máiréad Ní Ghráda]]. The Taidhbhearc has declined in importance and it is difficult to maintain professional standards in the absence of a strong and lively audience. The tradition persists, however, thanks to troupes like Aisling Ghéar.<ref>((cite web|url=http://www.aislingghear.com|title=Aisling Ghéar, Irish Language Theatre|website=Aislingghear.com|access-date=15 January 2018))</ref>

==See also==
((columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Irish Gothic literature]]
*[[Irish prose fiction]]
*[[Irish poetry]]
*[[Irish short story]]
*[[Irish theatre]]
*[[Early Irish literature]]
*[[List of Irish writers]]
*[[List of Irish poets]]
*[[Literature of Northern Ireland]]
*[[Literature in the other languages of Britain]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic literature]]
))

==Footnotes==

((Reflist))

==References==
((refbegin))
* Brady, Anne & [[Brian Cleeve|Cleeve, Brian]] (1985). ''Biographical Dictionary of Irish Writers''. Lilliput. ((ISBN|978-0-946640-11-9))
* Caerwyn Williams, J.E. agus Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín (1979). ''Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael''. An Clóchomhar Tta. Baile Átha Cliath. Revival 336–350
* Céitinn, Seathrún (1982) (eag. De Barra, Pádraig). ''Foras Feasa ar Éirinn, Athnua 1 & 2''. Foilseacháin Náisiúnta Teoranta. Baile Átha Cliath. A two volume version of Keating's history in modernised spelling.
* Corkery, Daniel (1925). ''The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century''. M.H. Son, Ltd. Dublin.
* Crosson, Seán (2008). " 'The Given Note' Traditional Music and Modern Irish Poetry". Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Dublin. ((ISBN|978-1847185693)) An overview of the historical relationship between poetry and music in Ireland.
* De Bhaldraithe, Tomás (ed.) (1976 – third printing). ''Cín Lae Amhlaoibh''. An Clóchomhar Tta. Baile Átha Cliath.  ((ISBN|978-0-7171-0512-0)). A shortened version of the diaries of Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin. There is an English translation, edited by de Bhaldraithe: ''Diary of an Irish Countryman 1827 – 1835''. Mercier Press. ((ISBN|978-1-85635-042-6))
* De Brún, Pádraig and Ó Buachalla, Breandán and Ó Concheanainn, Tomás (1975 – second printing) ''Nua-Dhuanaire: Cuid 1''. Institiúid Ardléinn Bhaile Átha Cliath.
* Dillon, Myles and Chadwick, Nora (1973). ''The Celtic Realms''. Cardinal. London. ((ISBN|978-0-351-15808-7)) pp.&nbsp;298–333
* Educational Media Solutions (2012) 'Reading Ireland, Contemporary Irish Writers in the Context of Place'. Films Media Group. ((ISBN|978-0-81609-056-3))
* ((cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Wayne E. |title=Shadowy Heroes: Irish Literature of the 1890s |date=1980 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, NY |isbn=9780815622314))
* [[Jeffares, A. Norman]] (1997). ''A Pocket History of Irish Literature''. O'Brien Press. ((ISBN|978-0-86278-502-4))
* Knott, Eleanor (1981 – second printing). ''An Introduction to Irish Syllabic Poetry of the Period 1200–1600''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
* Merriman, Brian: Ó hUaithne, Dáithí (ed.) (1974 – fourth printing). ''Cúirt an Mheán Oíche''. Preas Dolmen. Baile Átha Cliath. ((ISBN|978-0-85105-002-7))
* Mac Aonghusa, Proinsias (1979). 'An Ghaeilge i Meiriceá' in ''Go Meiriceá Siar'', Stiofán Ó hAnnracháin (ed.). An Clóchomhar Tta.
* Mac hÉil, Seán (1981). ''Íliad Hóiméar''. Ficina Typofographica. Gaillimh. ((ISBN|978-0-907775-01-0))
* Nicholls, Kenneth (1972). ''Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages''. Gill and MacMillan. Dublin. ((ISBN|978-0-7171-0561-8))
* ((Cite book |url=http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/shaw_bob |title=The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction |publisher=Granada Publishing Ltd |year=1981 |isbn=0-586-05380-8 |editor-last=Nicholls |editor-first=Peter |location=St Albans))
* Ó Conluain, Proinsias and Ó Céileachair, Donncha (1976 – second printing). ''An Duinníneach''. Sáirséal agus Dill. ((ISBN|978-0-901374-22-6))
* O’Driscoll, Robert (1976). ''An Ascendancy of the Heart: Ferguson and the Beginnings of Modern Irish Literature in English''. The Dolmen Press. Dublin. ((ISBN|978-0-85105-317-2))
* Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí (1982). ''An File''. Oifig an tSoláthair. Baile Átha Cliath.
* Ó Madagáin, Breandán (1980 – second edition). ''An Ghaeilge i Luimneach 1700–1900''. An Clóchomhar Tta. Baile Átha Cliath. ((ISBN|978-0-7171-0685-1))
* O’Rahilly, Thomas F. (Ed.) (2000 – reprint). ''Dánta Grádha: An Anthology of Irish Love Poetry (1350–1750)''. Cork University Press. ((ISBN|978-0-902561-09-0))
* Welsh, Robert (ed.) & Stewart, Bruce (ed.) (1996). ''The Oxford Companion to Irish Literature''.  Clarendon Press. ((ISBN|978-0-19-866158-0))
* Williams, J.A. (ed.) (1981). ''Pairlement Chloinne Tomáis''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. Dublin.
* Wright, Julia M. (2008). ''Irish Literature, 1750–1900: An Anthology''.  Blackwell Press.  ((ISBN|978-1-4051-4520-6))
((refend))

==External links==
((Commons category|Literature of Ireland))
*[http://www.nli.ie National Library of Ireland: Premier cultural institution holding Irish literary collections]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/ CELT: The online resource for Irish history, literature and politics]
*[http://www.irishplayography.com  The Irish Playography database]

((Ireland topics|expanded=Culture))
((English literature))
((Literature of Europe))
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[[Category:Irish literature| ]]
[[Category:European literature]]
[[Category:English-language literature]]

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