Meetei Mayek
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Ancient Meitei literature
(Old Manipuri literature)
An illustration of the ancient Meitei language narrative work Numit Kappa (Meitei for 'Shooting at the Sun')
Stylistic originsMeitei culture of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur)
Cultural originsMeitei culture of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur)
Subgenres
Epic cycles of incarnations
Related genres

Ancient Meitei literature, also termed as Old Manipuri literature, is literature written in the Ancient Meitei language (Old Manipuri language) from the earliest texts until the time of King Pamheiba (Meitei for 'Garib Niwaj') of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'). All the ancient Meitei literary works are written in the traditional Meitei script.[1][2][3][4] The ancient Meitei language texts, written in Meitei script, are conventionally termed as "the Puyas".[5][6][7][8]

Many of the ancient Meitei literary works need transliteration and translation, as the language used is often "obscure and unintelligible" to the modern Meitei (modern Manipuri).[9]

Overview

"The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."[10][11][12]

—Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Padma Vibhushan awardee Indian scholar

Ougri (Meitei: ꯑꯧꯒ꯭ꯔꯤ), an ancient Meitei language ritualistic musical work, was composed during the 1st century CE, and was sung mostly for the "destruction and ruination and also for prosperity" of the ancient Meitei society in Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur).[13][14] Many scholars commented that this musical work existed even before the beginning of the Common Era.[15]

The Poireiton Khunthok is a 3rd century ancient Meitei language literary work, which is a narrative of a historical colonisation of the valley by a group of people, led by Poireiton, in an area between the Langgol Hills and the Koubru mountains.[a][16][17]

The Khencho (Meitei: ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣ), another ancient Meitei language poetry work, was composed before the wake of the 7th century CE.[18][19][20]

Traditionally attributed to be written by Akoijam Tombi[21] (also called Akoijam Tomboy[22]), during the reign of Meitei King Khongtekcha Yoiremba in c. 763 CE,[22][21][23] the Panthoibi Khonggul (Ancient Meitei: Panthoipi Khongkul, romanized: /pān-thoi-pī khōng-kūl/ ; Meitei: ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯢꯕꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯒꯨꯜ, romanized: pān-thoi-bī khōng-gūl, lit. 'in quest of Panthoibi[24] or "Panthoibi's footprint"[25]'), often misspelled as the Panthoibi Khongul, narrates the adventure of lady Panthoipi (Old Manipuri for 'Panthoibi') to unite with her ultimate lover Nongpok Ningthou (Meitei for 'Sovereign of the East'),[26][27] by leaving her former husband's house.[28][24][25][26]

In 1100 CE, the Loyumba Shinyen (Meitei: ꯂꯣꯌꯨꯝꯄ ꯁꯤꯟꯌꯦꯟ, romanized: Loyumpa Shinyen), an ancient Meitei language written constitution was finalised and regulated under the patronage of Meitei King Loiyumba (Loyumba) (1074 CE-1112 CE) of the Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur). It was a formal declaration of the proto-constitution which was first drafted in 429 CE by Meitei King Naophangba.[29][30]

Notable literary works

The following is a list of a few of the notable literary works of ancient Meitei literature, set in Meitei alphabetical order:

Ancient Meitei language literary work(s)[b] Romanisation Literal meaning(s) / literal translation(s) Note(s) (if any) Reference(s)
ꯀꯨꯝꯗꯝꯁꯩ Kumdamsei the song that ushers in a new season ritual song, philosophical and moral teachings, Meitei mythology [31]
ꯁꯜꯀꯥꯎ Salkao male ox records of 7 fights of well grown bulls owned by elite people [32]
ꯁꯅꯥ ꯂꯝꯑꯣꯛ Sana Lamok royal welcome hymns [33]
ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ Sanamahi Laihui religious work [34]
ꯂꯥꯏꯁ꯭ꯔꯥ ꯐꯝ Laisra Pham a treatise on administration and social conduct [35][36]
ꯂꯥꯏꯔꯦꯝꯃ ꯄꯥꯎꯁꯥ Lairemma Paosa religious song, religious poem, Meitei mythology [37]
ꯂꯥꯡꯀꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡꯀꯣꯏꯄ / ꯂꯥꯡꯒꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡꯒꯣꯏꯕ Langkol Chingkoipa / Langgol Chinggoiba account of Langgol hills description of the extensive Langgol hills with praise [38]
ꯂꯩꯊꯛ ꯂꯩꯈꯥꯔꯣꯟ Leithak Leikharon scripture, Meitei mythology [39]
ꯂꯩꯔꯣꯟ Leiron account of flowers rhythmic and musical descriptions of 100 flowers and orchids known to ancient Meitei people [40]
ꯂꯣꯌꯨꯝꯕ ꯁꯤꯟꯌꯦꯟ Loyumba Sinyen Constitution [41]
ꯂꯧꯇꯥ ꯏꯁꯩ Louta Eesei hymns, prayer to deities for bountiful blessings to agriculture [42]
ꯂꯪꯃꯥꯏꯂꯣꯟ Langmailon ritual song, hero worship [43]
ꯃꯩ Mei fire hymns, ditty to the fire god [44]
ꯃꯣꯏꯔꯥꯡ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ Moirang Ningthourol Lambuba royal chronicle [45]
ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯕꯤ ꯅꯥꯍꯩꯔꯣꯜ Panthoibi Naheirol grande passion, love supramundane [46]
ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯄꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯀꯨꯜ / ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯕꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯒꯨꯜ Panthoipi Khongkul / Panthoibi Khonggul scripture, Meitei mythology [47]
ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯕ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ Pakhangba Laihui religious work [48]
ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯕ ꯂꯥꯡꯌꯦꯟꯁꯩ Pakhangba Langyensei ritual song, coronation ceremonial poetry, philosophical riddles [49]
ꯄꯣꯏꯔꯩꯇꯣꯟ ꯈꯨꯟꯊꯣꯛ Poireiton Khunthok story of an ancient civilization [50][51]
ꯅꯥꯎꯊꯤꯡꯈꯣꯡ ꯐꯝꯕꯥꯜ ꯀꯥꯕ Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba historical tragedy [52]
ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ Ningthourol Lambuba royal chronicle [53]
ꯅꯨꯃꯤꯠ ꯀꯥꯞꯄ Numit Kappa the shooting down of the sun heroism, Meitei mythology [54]
ꯅꯨꯡꯄꯥꯟ ꯄꯣꯟꯄꯤ ꯂꯨꯋꯥꯎꯄ Nungpan Ponpi Luwaopa love supramundane epic, Meitei mythology [55]
ꯅꯣꯡꯁꯥꯕ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ Nongsaba Laihui religious work [56]
ꯅꯣꯡꯂꯥꯎ ꯏꯁꯩ Nonglao Eesei hymns (sung during severe drought) [57]
ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯆꯤꯡ ꯆꯤꯡꯀꯣꯏꯄ / ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯖꯤꯡ ꯆꯤꯡꯒꯣꯏꯕ Nongmaiching Chingkoipa / Nongmaijing Chinggoiba account of Nongmaiching mountains description of a number of cliffs, slopes and adjacent locations in the Nongmaiching Ching [58]
ꯆꯥꯗꯥ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ Chada Laihui royal chronicle [59][60]
ꯆꯥꯏꯅꯔꯣꯜ Chainarol an account of combats collection of 27 stories of bellicosity among the clan dynasties [61]
ꯆꯦꯡꯂꯩꯔꯣꯟ Chengleiron narrative of the Chenglei clan heroic legend of Chenglei King Chingjen Naran Panganba [62]
ꯇꯨꯇꯦꯡꯂꯣꯟ Tutenglon dredging the channels of rivers heroic saga of two Meitei royal brothers [63]
ꯇꯣꯔꯩꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ Toreirol Lambuba account of toponyms of places in riverbanks [64]
ꯈꯨꯃꯟ ꯀꯪꯂꯩꯔꯣꯜ Khuman Kangleirol royal chronicle of Khuman dynasty [65]
ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣ Khencho religious song, religious poem [66]
ꯈꯣꯡꯆꯣꯝꯅꯨꯄꯤ ꯅꯣꯡꯀꯥꯂꯣꯜ Khongchomnupi Nongkalol tragedy, comedy, Meitei mythology [67][68]
ꯊꯋꯥꯟꯊꯥꯕ ꯍꯤꯔꯥꯟ Thawanthaba Hiran historical tragedy of crime passionnel [69]
ꯊꯥꯔꯣꯟ Tharon lore of months poetic account of the twelve lunar months of a year [70]
ꯌꯥꯀꯩꯕꯥ Yakeiba ritual song [71]
ꯌꯥꯀꯩꯔꯣꯟ Yakeiron poem collection [72]
ꯌꯦꯟꯂꯣꯟ Yenlon account of herbs rhythmic description of 66 herbs used by the Meiteis, in delicacies and medicine [73]
ꯍꯤꯖꯟ ꯍꯤꯔꯥꯎ Hijan Hirao narrative poem [74]
ꯐꯧꯀꯧꯔꯣꯟ Phoukouron hymns, prayer to goddess of crops (Phouoibi) [75]
ꯑꯄꯣꯛꯂꯣꯟ Apoklon hymns [76]
ꯑꯅꯣꯏꯔꯣꯜ Anoirol religious song, religious poem, Meitei mythology [77]
ꯑꯍꯣꯡꯂꯣꯟ Ahonglon ritual song [78]
ꯑꯧꯒ꯭ꯔꯤ Ougri religious song, religious poem [79]

Translations and literary adaptations to modern Meitei

Many scholars and writers, including but not limited to M. Chandra Singh,[80] Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra[81] and O. Bogheswor,[82] have dedicated their long lives in the translations, literary adaptations and restorations of ancient Meitei literary works. The contributions of these group of people make the new generations of readers aware of the essence and values of the old literature. In addition to them, the Manipuri Sahitya Parishad published books of old literature along with the modern versions.[83][84]

Significance in modern times

The Civil Services Examination (CSE), conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), for the recruitment of the bureaucrat civil services of the Government of India, offers its aspirant candidates across the entire country an optional subject of Meitei literature (Manipuri literature), in which the "Old Manipuri Literature" is an integral part of it.[85][86]

The literary works of ancient Meitei literature that are in the syllabus are: (1) O. Bhogeswar Singh (Ed.) : Numit Kappa (2) M. Gourachandra Singh (Ed.) : Thawanthaba Hiran (3) N. Khelchandra Singh (Ed.) : Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba (4) M. Chandra Singh (Ed.) : Panthoibi Khonggul[85][86]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The antiquity of this literary work was verified by the "Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1, by W. Yumjao Singh, pp. 18-19."
  2. ^ The titles of some of these ancient Meitei language literary works are given in their respective modern Meitei language equivalent titles.

References

  1. ^ Datta, Amaresh (1987). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo. Sahitya Akademi. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-260-1803-1. ... Although Bengali-Assamese alphabet replaced the original Manipuri alphabet for writing modern Manipuri in the year 1925, the study of Manipuri alphabet is still a must for those researchers who want to make an incursion in the field of old Manipuri literature, history, language, genealogy, astrology, numismatics, etc. However, the old Manipuri alphabet is still used by the royal bards and pundits in the palace of Manipur. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  2. ^ Sharmila, Irom (22 July 2013). Fragrance of Peace. India: Zubaan. p. 7. ISBN 978-93-83074-48-8. ... also show-case the indigenous Meetei script. Meiteilon is a Tibeto-Burman language, and one of less than a dozen of this family of tongues that possesses a script. ... But it is only through the script that one can enter the world of ancient Manipuri literature, science and mythology. A generation of young children is growing up in Manipur who read this script only, and not the Brahmanic Bengali script adopted for over 300 years. For this generation there is no modern literature to read as everything is written in the Bengali script.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ Parratt, John (1 January 2005). Wounded Land: Politics and Identity in Modern Manipur. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-8324-053-6. ... Its meetings passed resolutions to revive Meetei culture, to reintroduce the archaic script, to study the ancient Manipuri literature, and ...
  4. ^ Singh, Lairenmayum Iboongohal (1963). Introduction to Manipur. University of California. India: S. Babudhan Singh; to be had of: Students' Store. p. 59. ... A mass of Manipuri literature is locked in this old script which has gradually fallen into disuse among the Manipuris after they had adopted the Bengali script to write their language from the beginning of 18th century. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  5. ^ George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Plays and prose. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 431. ISBN 978-81-7201-783-5.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  6. ^ Walter, Mariko Namba; Fridman, Eva Jane Neumann (15 December 2004). Shamanism [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture [2 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 573. ISBN 978-1-57607-646-0. The Meitei community has a long tradition of writing and literature, which is found in the ancient manuscripts of this community, popularly known as the puyas (Ray 2000). These manuscripts are handwritten in the archaic script on ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ^ "The Effects of Burning of Meitei Puyas By Madhu Chandra". e-pao.net. Retrieved 10 August 2023. Puyas may be defined as sacred written records handed down to posterity by the forefathers of the Meiteis. They are a particular kind of old narratives which form a definite class in Manipuri literature.
  8. ^ Gupta, Asha (2007). Biodiversity Conservation and Legal Aspects. University of Michigan. Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors. p. 197. ISBN 978-81-7910-187-2. The Meitei puyas are undoubtedly one of the richest catalogues occurring in any ancient literature. The manuscripts in Manipuri language have described local fauna and flora with reference to their growing region at a very high ...
  9. ^ Assam (India) (1899). Report on the Administration of the Province of Assam. University of California. p. 20. ... it is probable that the collection of these old Manipuri works now in the State library comprises the greater portion still extant of this ancient literature. ... It now remains to have the books transliterated and translated, while a fair number of Manipuri pandits still remains capable of carrying out the work. The language used is often obscure and unintelligible to the modern Manipuri.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  10. ^ Indian Literature - Volume 14 - Page 20 (Volume 14 - Page 20 ed.). Sahitya Akademi. 1971. p. 20. The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now.
  11. ^ Siṃha, Niṃthaukhoṃjama Khelacandra (1975). Manipuri Language: Status and Importance (in English and Manipuri). N. Tombi Raj Singh. p. 34. The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  12. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  13. ^ Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 326. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
  14. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 14. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  15. ^ Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 329. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
  16. ^ Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Poireiton Khunthokpa". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Manipur University Library, Imphal. India: Digital Library of India. pp. 121, 122. The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of prople from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19.
  17. ^ Bhaṭṭācāryya, Haridāsa (1953). The Cultural Heritage of India: Languages and literatures. University of Michigan. India: Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture. p. 663. ... The beginnings of this Old Manipuri literature may go back to 1,500 years or even 2,000 years from now. ... The late Yumajao Singh thought that Poireiton Khunthok, a prose work describing the settlement of some Meithei tribes, is the oldest work in Manipuri going back to the third century A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 330. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
  19. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 14, 15. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  20. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 14. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  21. ^ a b "The relationship between Thang-Ta & Meitei Pung maintained by our Ancient ..." (PDF). ccrtindia.gov.in. Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Centre for Cultural Resources and Training. p. 4.((cite web)): CS1 maint: others (link)
  22. ^ a b Devi, Dr Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. Lulu.com. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7. ... the text Panthoibi Khongul generally believed to have been written by Akoijam Tomboy during the reign of King Khongtekcha Yoiremba (763 A.D.) ...
  23. ^ Mukherjee, Sujit (1998). A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850. Orient Blackswan. p. 280. ISBN 978-81-250-1453-9. Panthoibi khongul ( ? C ; Manipuri ) : prose narrative , the original of which was believed to have been composed in ancient Meitei language in first half of 8th century AD ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  24. ^ a b Society and Economy in North-East India. Regency Publications. 2004. ISBN 978-81-87498-83-4.
  25. ^ a b Zama, Margaret Ch (2013). Emerging Literatures from Northeast India: The Dynamics of Culture, Society and Identity. SAGE Publishing India. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-321-1746-9.
  26. ^ a b North East India History Association. Session (2003). Proceedings of North East India History Association. The Association.
  27. ^ Dr. Yumlembam Gopi Devi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. Lulu.com. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7.
  28. ^ Ray, Asok Kumar; Chakraborty, Satyabrata (2008). Society, Politics, and Development in North East India: Essays in Memory of Dr. Basudeb Datta Ray. Concept Publishing Company. p. 88. ISBN 978-81-8069-572-8.
  29. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993). Manipur: Treatise & Documents. Mittal Publications. p. 2. ISBN 978-81-7099-399-5. Manipur, known as 'Meetei Leipak' or 'Kangleipak' in the two millennia old Meetei manuscripts had experienced some form of constitutional government under a proto-Constitution in 429 A.D. which was reduced to a final format in 1110 A.D. Constitution entitled 'Loiyamba Shinyen' during the regime of King Loyumba.
  30. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1991). Law and Society: Strategy for Public Choice, 2001. Mittal Publications. p. 304. ISBN 978-81-7099-271-4. The constitutionalism had developed with the adoption of a prototype of a constitution in 429 A.D. which was finally moulded into the written constitution in 1110 A.D., called 'Loyumba Shinyen' till it was substituted by Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 which operated till Manipur's merger with India on October 15, 1949.
  31. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Kumdamsei', literally meaning the song that ushers in a new season, stands for the culmination of a protracted evolution of ritual songs. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  32. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 87. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Salkāo, literally meaning a male ox, is also a rare work of its kind in that it curiously records the fights between well-grown bulls belonging to respectable personages but gone bush and no one can be sure whether a single hand or more as in the case of Chainarol would be engaged in its composition. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  33. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Sana Lamok' has music as its soul and is a paen offered to Pākhangbā, one of the two presiding deities of the Meitei community. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  34. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 84, 148, 149. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  35. ^ Himalaya Today - Volume 4, Issue 1 - Volume 5, Issue 1. University of Michigan. Himalaya Today Publications. 1992. p. 49.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  36. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. According to the manuscript Lāisra Pham, a treatise on administration and social conduct,...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  37. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 15. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  38. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Other Notable Works)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 103, 104. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  39. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 82, 106. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  40. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 91–96, 98. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  41. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 9, 18, 21, 207. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. There is a body of rules and regulations relating to the conduct of the king, his nobles and the people codified from traditional practices and issued by King Loyumbā (1074–1112). These were enshrined in the manuscript Loyumbā Sinyen ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  42. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Loutā Eesei', as the title signifies, is sung on the eve of ploughing the field when the young season sets in. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  43. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Langmailon' is an entertaining composition recited on ceremonial occasions connected with the celebration of the king's victory or of his coronation. Through the resonant rhythmic lines are described the various titles of a Meitei king, justifiably derived from his achievements and the splendid beauty of his kingdom. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  44. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns) :: Mei". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 21, 22. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Mei' is a ditty sung at the worship of the fire-god by extracting needfire. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  45. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 71, 75, 76, 78. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. While the Cheithārol Kumbābā is couched mainly in prose, the Ningthourol Lambubā, the Moirāng Ningthourol Lambubā, and the Chāda Laihui are in poetry. ... Moirāng Ningthourol Lambubā, as the title implies, is the account of Moirāng kings and though cast in the likeness of the Ningthourol Lambubā, the language is comparatively simple and more musical. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  46. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 60, 61, 62. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  47. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 58, 59, 60. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  48. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 84. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  49. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Pakhangba Langyensei". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Pākhangbā Lāngyensei' is esteemed highly for its association with the coronation ceremony ... it still can claim a place in early Manipuri poetry. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  50. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Other Notable Works)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 85–88. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Poireiton Khunthok is a rare work for its theme as also for its diction. Going apart from the prevalent practice of composition, it is in prose. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  51. ^ Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Poireiton Khunthokpa". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Manipur University Library, Imphal. India: Digital Library of India. pp. 121, 122. The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of prople from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19.
  52. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 14, 21, 49–54, 297. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Nāothingkhong Phambāl Kāba is a tragedy resulting from circumstances which are not the making of the characters. ... The story, as the title suggests, is mainly concerned with the eventful life of Prince Hongnemyoi Khunjāo until his accession to the Meitei throne as Nāothingkhong in 663 A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  53. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 71–75, 77–78, 81, 110. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  54. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 23, 26–29. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  55. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Love Supramundane)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 23, 46–48, 198, 297. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  56. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 83. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  57. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns) : Nonglāo Eesei". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Nonglāo Eesei' is an amusing song supposed to be rendered in groups at the time of severe drought in the country and this is to be done before dawn by men and women in the buff. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  58. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Other Notable Works)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 102, 103. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  59. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Chronicles)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 71, 77–78, 81. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. The 'Chāda Lāihui' is a genealogy of the Meitei kings from the distaff side and is perhaps unique of its kind in any literature. It begins first with the name of Chākhā Nuron Piron Yāmbi, mother of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, who ascended the throne in 33 A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  60. ^ Datta, Amaresh (1987). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 605. ISBN 978-81-260-1803-1.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  61. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 23, 36–42, 87. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Chāinarol (An Account of Combats) reaffirms the tradition of bellicosity among the clan dynasties with, of course, the difference ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  62. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 23, 181. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Chengleiron, literally meaning a narrative of the Chenglei clan, is essentially the bizarre legend of Chingjen Nāran Pānganbā born of Thāngyi Khongjrombā, king of the Chengleis ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  63. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Tutenglon is the saga of two Meitei princes, Yoimongbā and Tāothingmāng, who took upon themselves the superhuman task of dredging the channels of the biggest and the longest rivers in Manipur, the Iril and the Imphal ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  64. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Toreirol Lambubā is a veritable account of toponyms and describes how places, particularly located on the banks of meandering rivers, derived their names. Beginning with the epic adventure of Yoimongbā and Tāothingmāng, the Meitei princes in the 3rd century A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  65. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Chronicles)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. The Khuman Kangleiron is a chronicle of the Khuman clan which held its sway in the south of the valley adjacent to the Meitei territory ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  66. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 14, 15. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  67. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Love Supramundane)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 54, 55. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Khongchumnupi Nongkārol is a strange story of love which baffles one's attempt to name it either as a tragedy or a comedy. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  68. ^ Devi, Lairenlakpam Bino (2002). The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai. India: Mittal Publications. p. 16. ISBN 978-81-7099-849-5. It is found in the ancient Manipuri literature named 'Khongjomnubi Nongkarol'. This book described in an allegorical way how the constellations of pleiads and orions took place in the sky and in the course how Khurkhul was named. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  69. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 23, 29–36. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Thawānthābā Hirān is a tragedy arising out of crime passionnel and is the first work to usher in realism in early Manipuri literature. Unlike the stories of previous works which have the nature of folk-tales, the present story is based on historical facts. The unfortunate incident was the consequence of sheer jealousy as Thawānthābā, the Meitei king (1195-1231), loved too well but not so wisely and this caused to stir the latent pugnacity between two groups of people. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  70. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Other Notable Works)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 100, 101. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Thāron, an account of the twelve lunar months of a year, is a significant work that stands to prove the propensity of the early Manipuri writers for describing or drawing any aspect that concerns human life. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  71. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 18, 19. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. ...'Yākeibā' can be singled out as a neatly accomplished piece of composition. The opening eighteen lines describe the rising of the resplendent Sun as if done on a canvas. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  72. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Yākeiron". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 19, 20. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. There are a few more aubades that go by the name of 'Yakeiron' serving similar purpose, and always associated with the call of a bird. They do not make as wide a survey of many a region nor are so picturesque as the foregoing one, but each is invested with deep human emotions. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  73. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Other Notable Works)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 96–98. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Yenlon attempts to clearly show that beauty is not the exclusive virtue of orchids and other flowers, but many other plants, particularly herbs, growing in the wild have their own too. This, an ancient bard did spot and inspired him to compose pleasant lines on them. ... The text is composed in archaic diction with comparatively short sentences. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  74. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 16, 17. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Hijan Hirāo', a long narrative poem, which is laden with deep human sentiment though in the form of pathetic fallacy over and above the charm of its music. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  75. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns) : Phoukouron". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 22, 23. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Phoukouron', sung at harvesting is, in contrast to the former, marked by leisurely movement of lines formed by juxtaposed words, cryptic and occasionally abstruse. ... The goddess of crops, Phouoibi (Demeter of the Meiteis) is, in all humility, beseeched to munificently bestow the richest harvest. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  76. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Hymns) : Apoklon". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Apoklon' is an allocution to the first progenitor for his benediction for long life and material prosperity on mankind. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  77. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Anoirol". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 15. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Anoirol', a long composition sung with penā in brisk measures, describes the evolution of dance in different ages and other short incidents related to them. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  78. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ahonglon". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 17, 18. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. 'Ahonglon' with its vigour rhythm recounts the yearly joyous festivals performed by the successive Meitei kings with pomp and grandeur. Its antiquity can be traced back to a period before the 11th century for the manuscript Loyumbā Sinyen makes a mention of it...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  79. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 14. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  80. ^ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1993). Folk Culture of Manipur. University of Michigan. Manas Publications. p. 115. ISBN 978-81-7049-063-0. Late Pandit M. Chandra Singh, Thaynagi Meitei Sahitya (Old Literature of Manipur), included in the speech collection of 1952 published by Manipur Sahitya Parishad, ...((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  81. ^ Ahluwalia, B. K. (1984). "Literature". Social Change in Manipur. University of Michigan. India: Cultural Publishing House. p. 58. Exploring in the field of ancient Manipuri literature, N. Khelachandra Singh has brought out 'Manipuri Shahityagi ...
  82. ^ George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Plays and prose. India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 427, 431, 432. ISBN 978-81-7201-783-5.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  83. ^ Meitei, Sanjenbam Yaiphaba; Chaudhuri, Sarit K.; Arunkumar, M. C. (25 November 2020). The Cultural Heritage of Manipur. Routledge. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-000-29637-2.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  84. ^ Roy, Jyotirmoy (1973). "Literature; Religion, Literature and Dance". History of Manipur. University of Michigan. India: Eastlight Book House. pp. 176, 178, 182.((cite book)): CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  85. ^ a b "UPSC Manipuri Literature Syllabus for IAS Mains". BYJUS. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
  86. ^ a b "UPSC - Manipuri Syllabus". Unacademy. Retrieved 1 August 2023.

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