Théodore Valerio [fr], 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")
Théodore Valerio [fr], 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")

"Vlach" (English: /ˈvlɑːx/ or /ˈvlæk/), also "Wallachian" (and many other variants[1]), is a historical term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate mainly Romanians but also Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Istro-Romanians and other Eastern Romance-speaking subgroups of Central and Eastern Europe.[2]

As a contemporary term, in the English language, the Vlachs are the Balkan Romance-speaking peoples who live south of the Danube in what are now southern Albania, Bulgaria, northern Greece, North Macedonia, and eastern Serbia as native ethnic groups, such as the Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and, in Serbian, the Timok Romanians.[3] The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds,[4] and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively.[5] The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians.

"Vlachs" were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians.[6] According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period[7] and western Balkan populations known as "Vlachs" also have had Romanized Illyrian origins.[8]

Nowadays, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).[9]

Etymology and names

Further information: Walhaz
Map of the Balkans with regions inhabited by Romanians/Vlachs (Eastern Romance speakers) highlighted
Map of the Balkans with regions inhabited by Romanians/Vlachs (Eastern Romance speakers) highlighted

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, oláh, Vlas, Ilac, Ulah, etc.[1]) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe,[5] adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā-[10] (Caesar's Latin: Volcae, Strabo and Ptolemy's Greek: Ouolkai).[11] Via Latin, in Gothic, as *walhs, the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker",[11] and was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi (Βλάχοι), Slavic Vlah, Hungarian oláh and olasz, etc.[12][13] The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (German: Welsch),[5] and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians.[11][1] The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians.[14] Historically, the term was used primarily for the Romanians.[1][3] Testimonies from the 13th to 14th centuries show that, although in Europe (and beyond) they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used for themselves the endonym "Rumân/Român", from the Latin "Romanus" (in memory of Rome).[1] Vlachs[which?] are referred in late Byzantine documents as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs ("Bulgaralbanitoblahos"), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs[15]

Vlach Herdsmen in Greece (Amand von Schweiger-Lerchenfeld [de], 1887)
Vlach Herdsmen in Greece (Amand von Schweiger-Lerchenfeld [de], 1887)

Via both Germanic and Latin, the term started to signify "stranger, foreigner" also in the Balkans, where it in its early form was used for Romance-speakers, but the term eventually took on the meaning of "shepherd, nomad".[5] The Romance-speaking communities themselves, however, used the endonym "Romans".[16] Term Vlach can denote various ethnic elements: "Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".[17] According to historian Sima Ćirković, the name "Vlach" in medieval sources has the same rank as the name "Greek", "Serb" or "Latin".[18]

Map depicting the current distribution of Balkan Romance-speaking peoples
Map depicting the current distribution of Balkan Romance-speaking peoples

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and had the same rights as Muslims, but their origin is not entirely clear.[4] Some Greeks used "vlachos" as a pejorative term. In Žumberak members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs, in Carniola residents of Žumberak in general were Vlachs. In Posavina and Bihać area Muslims called Vlachs as Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics) while Catholics under that name consider Orthodox Christians. For residents of the Dalmatian islands population of immigrants (either Croats or Serbs) were called as Vlachs. The name Vlach in Dalmatia also has negative connotations as "newcomer", "peasant", "ignorant" while in Istria the ethnonym Vlach is used to make a distinction between the native Croats and newly settled Istro-Romanian old catholic Vlachs and Slavic population which was coming in the 15th and 16th century.[19]

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).[20][21]

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.[22]) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.[23][24] In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.[3] Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.[3]

Medieval usage

See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of the Aromanians
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
Transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds of the past
Transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds of the past

The Hellenic chronicle could possibly qualify to the first testimony of Vlachs in Pannonia and Eastern Europe during the time of Attila.[25][26][27]

6th century

What might be the earliest reference to the term “Vlach” comes from the 7th century Byzantine historiographer Theophylact Simocatta, who mentions Blachernae in connection with some historical data of the 6th century, during the reign of Byzantine emperor Maurice.[28][29]

8th century

First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river; the original document containing the information is from the Konstamonitou monastery.[30]

9th century

During the late 9th century the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin, where the province of Pannonia was inhabited by the "Slavs [Sclavi], Bulgarians [Bulgarii] and Vlachs [Blachii], and the shepherds of the Romans [pastores Romanorum]" (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum —according to the Gesta Hungarorum, written around 1200 by the anonymous chancellor of King Béla III of Hungary.[31]

10th century

Chroniclers John Skylitzes and George Kedrenos wrote that in 971, during battles between Romans (Byzantines) and Rus' people led by Sveinald (Sviatoslav I), the people of the north side of Danube came to Emperor John I Tzimiskes and they handed over their fortresses and the Emperor sent troops to guard the fortresses. During those times, Northern part of Danube were dwelled by sedentary Vlachs and tribes of nomad Pechenegs who lived in tents.[32] However, we cannot pass without mentioning that the text makes it crystal clear that it's not talking about the Vlachs, but about the alliance of the Russians, Bulgars, and Pechenegs. Since the text lists the enemy nations who will return the fortresses to the Romans [Byzantines].[33] Vlachs are not mentioned once in the text.[33]

George Kedrenos mentioned about Vlachs in 976. The Vlachs were guides and guards of Roman (Byzantine) caravans in Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples".[34]

Ibn al-Nadīm published in 938 the work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs" (using Blagha for Vlachs)[35][36]

11th century

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), described a 1066 revolt against the emperor in Northern Greece led by Nicolitzas Delphinas and other Vlachs.[37]

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th–13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs.[38][39] Non-Romanian scholars on the subject, such as Omeljan Pritsak, however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are “non-christian heathens” and nomadic horsemans.[40]

In the Bulgarian state of the 11th and 12th century, Vlachs live in large numbers, and they were equals to the Bulgarian population.[41]

12th century

Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.
Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written ca. 1113, wrote when the Volochi (Vlachs) attacked the Slavs of the Danube and settled among them and oppressed them, the Slavs departed and settled on the Vistula, under the name of Leshi.[42] The Hungarians drove away the Vlachs and took the land and settled there.[43][44] However, it is important to note that the vast majority of non-Romanian historians do not consider the "Volochi" people mentioned in the text to be Vlachs, but Franks, since the text describes their country in several places, which is the same as the territory of the Frankish Empire, and also mentions the "Volochi" people in places like Normandy, where no Vlachs ever lived.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population.[54]

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.[55][56]

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

13th century

In 1213, an army of Vlachs, Saxons and Pechenegs, led by the Count of Sibiu, Joachim Türje, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin.[57] After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.[58]

At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon of Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns.[59][60] Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, and the last region defended by the Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between the Olt River and the Carpathians.[61][62]

Shortly after the fall of the Land of the Olt, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region.[63] In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the settlers.[64] The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum (Walachian law).[65]

In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River. A town, Baia (near the said river), was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons (see also Foundation of Moldavia).[66][67] In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia).[68]

14th century

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.[69][70] In the 14th century royal charters include and some segregation policies declaring that "a Serb shall not marry a Vlach."[71] Although this could be related to the term of the same origin, used for dependent shepherds of that time, like in the Dušan's Code, since the dependent population was encouraged to switch to agriculture, it being of more worth to the crown.

Toponymy

Bolohoveni territory, according to V. A. Boldur
Bolohoveni territory, according to V. A. Boldur

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.[72] In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs.

States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:[citation needed]

Regions and places are:

Little Wallachia in Croatia and Bosnia
Little Wallachia in Croatia and Bosnia

Shepherd culture

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.[80]

Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times.[81]

Legacy

According to Ilona Czamańska "for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult." The transhumance of Vlachs, the heirs of Roman citizens, may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis, but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time. These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians, they exist and in the Caucasus, the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest.[83]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Ioan-Aurel Pop. "On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia" (PDF). Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  2. ^ "Valah". Dicționare ale limbii române. dexonline.ro. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d Vlach at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^ a b Sugar, Peter F. (1996). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804. University of Washington Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-295-96033-7.
  5. ^ a b c d Tanner 2004, p. 203.
  6. ^ Fine 1991, p. ?: "Traditionally scholars have seen the Dacians as ancestors of the modern Rumanians and Vlachs."
  7. ^ According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "România: Atlas Istorico-geografic", Academia Română 1996, ISBN 973-27-0500-0, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Migration Period is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.
  8. ^ Badlands-Borderland: A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus [ILLUSTRATED] (Hardcover) by T. J. Winnifruth, ISBN 0-7156-3201-9, 2003, page 44: "Romanized Illyrians, the ancestors of the modern Vlachs".
  9. ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333 (1997)". Assembly.coe.int. 24 June 1997. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  10. ^ Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
  11. ^ a b c Juhani Nuorluoto; Martti Leiwo; Jussi Halla-aho (2001). Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies. Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-952-10-0246-5.
  12. ^ Kelley L. Ross (2003). "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History". The Proceedings of the Friesian School. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Note: The Vlach Connection
  13. ^ Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 2013. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5.
  14. ^ Thomas M. Wilson; Hastings Donnan (2005). Culture and Power at the Edges of the State: National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-3-8258-7569-5.
  15. ^ Noel Malcolm; (1996) Bosnia: A Short History p. 101; NYU Press, ISBN 0814755615
  16. ^ H. C. Darby (1957). "The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries". The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 1. p. 34.
  17. ^ Jan Gawron; (2020) Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins. p. 274-275; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI, [1]
  18. ^ Ćirković, Sima (2020). Živeti sa istorijom. Belgrade: Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. p. 309.
  19. ^ Spicijarić Paškvan, Nina; (2014) Vlasi i krčki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima (Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources) p. 348; Studii şi cercetări – Actele Simpozionului Banat – istorie şi multiculturalitate, [2]
  20. ^ Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.
  21. ^ G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78
  22. ^ The Balkan Vlachs: Born to Assimilate? at culturalsurvival.org
  23. ^ Demirtaş-Coşkun 2001.
  24. ^ Tanner 2004.
  25. ^ Dvoichenko-Markov, Demetrius. "THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE". Byzantion, vol. 49, 1979, pp. 175–187. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44172681. Accessed 3 April 2020.
  26. ^ O. V. Tvorogov, Drevne-Russkie Chronography (Ancient Russian Chronographies), Leningrad, 1975, p.138.
  27. ^ P. P. Panaitescu, Introducere la Istoria Culturii Romànesti (Introduction to the History of Rumanian Culture), Bucharest, 1969, p. 130
  28. ^ Boor, Carl de; Wirth, Peter, eds. (1972). Theophylacti Simocattae Historiae. Bibliotheca scriptorum graecorum et romanorum Teubneriana. In aedibus B.G. Teubneri.
  29. ^ Gherghel, Ilie (1920). "Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach"". Convorbiri Literare (in Romanian): 4–8.
  30. ^ Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126
  31. ^ *Gesta Hungarorum (a translation by Martyn Rady)
  32. ^ FHDR, Fontes Historiae Daco-Romaniae-Izvoarele istoriei României, vol. III, p. 141
  33. ^ a b Skylitzes, John (2010). A Synopsis Of Byzantine History. Translated by Wortley, John (1# ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521767059.
  34. ^ A. Decei, V. Ciocîltan, "La mention des Roumains (Walah) chez Al-Maqdisi", in Romano-arabica I, Bucharest, 1974, pp. 49–54
  35. ^ Ibn al Nadim, al-Fihrist. English translation: The Fihrist of al-Nadim. Editor și traducător: B. Dodge, New York, Columbia University Press, 1970, p. 37 with n.82
  36. ^ Spinei, Victor, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill. 2009, p. 83
  37. ^ G. Murnu, Când si unde se ivesc românii întâia dată în istorie, în "Convorbiri Literare", XXX, pp. 97-112
  38. ^ Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana, in Drei lygisogur, ed. Å. Lagerholm (Halle/Saale, 1927), p. 29
  39. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p. 106, ISBN 9789047428800
  40. ^ Pritsak, Omeljan (1981). The Origin of Rus': Old Scandinavian Sources Other than the Sagas. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-64465-4.
  41. ^ Andre Du Nay; (1996) The Origins of the Rumanians: The Early History of the Rumanian Language p. 31; Matthias Corvinus Publishing, ISBN 1882785088
  42. ^ HE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers
  43. ^ Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (English), The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, The Medieval Academy of America, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2012, p.62
  44. ^ C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire: 1790–1918, Faber & Faber, 4 sept. 2014, paragraf.185
  45. ^ Kristó, Gyula (2003). Early Transylvania (895–1324). Lucidus Kiadó. ISBN 963-9465-12-7.
  46. ^ Deletant, Dennis (1992). Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus.
  47. ^ Петрухин В.Я., Раевский Д.С (2004). Очерки истории народов России в древности и раннем средневековье. М. (in Russian).((cite book)): CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  48. ^ D. S. Likhachev, O. V. Tvorogov (2012). Повесть временных лет (in Russian). p. 203. В данном контексте предполагалось, что под волохами лето-писец имел в виду франков((cite book)): CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  49. ^ M. B., Sverdlov (1993). К изучению мордовских исторических произве- дений в составе «Повести временных лет (in Russian). pp. 18-19.
  50. ^ Gyóni, Mathias (1949). Les Volochs des Annales primitives de Kiev – Études slaves et roumaines (in French). pp. 83–92.
  51. ^ Vladimir Petrukhin, Dmitrij Rajevszkij (2004). Очерки истории народов России в древности и раннем средневековье (in Russian). При внимательном чтении мы уже сейчас можем убедиться, что не только русь упомянута в космографическом введении к «Повести временных лет» дважды. Дважды упомятута и волъхва, достаточно точ¬ но помещенная между некими галичанами и римлянами, жителями Рима: это те самые франки — волохи, которые, как говорится далее, «нашедши на словени на дунайския» и сели среди них, творя насилие. Такими же «находниками» впоследствии изображает летописец и ва¬ ряжскую русь в Восточной Европе, среди славянских и финно-угорских племен. Здесь же, кстати, становится ясно, почему для обозначения фран¬ ков летописец использовал архаичный этникон волохи: франками — фрягами в его времена называли уже генуэзцев.((cite book)): CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  52. ^ Ludolf, Müller (1977). Handbuch zur Nestorchronik IV (in German). p. 210.
  53. ^ Ferincz, István (2015). Régmúlt idők elbeszélése – A Kijevi Rusz első krónikája (in Hungarian). p. 18. Ugyancsak Jáfet nemzetségét alkotják a varégok, a svédek (svei), a norvégok (urmane), a gótok (gote), a ruszok (rus'), az angolok (agnjane), a galícsánok (galičane), a volohok (volchva), a rómaiak (rimljane), a németek (nĕmci), a karolingek (korljazi), a velenceiek (ven'dici), a genovaiak (frjagove) és mások, ezek nyugatról déli irányban telepedtek le, és szomszédosak Hám törzsével.
  54. ^ "Tudela".
  55. ^ A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.
  56. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, ISBN 9789004175365
  57. ^ Curta, 2006, p. 385
  58. ^ Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, București, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27
  59. ^ Simon de Kéza, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, IV,
  60. ^ G. Popa-Lisseanu, Izvoarele istoriei Românilor, IV, Bucuresti, 1935, p. .32
  61. ^ K. HOREDT, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei în secolele IV-XIII, București, 1958, p.109-131. IDEM, Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter, Bonn, 1986, p.111 sqq.
  62. ^ I.M.Tiplic, CONSIDERAŢII CU PRIVIRE LA LINIILE ÎNTĂRITE DE TIPUL PRISĂCILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA(sec. IX-XIII)*ACTA TERRAE SEPTEMCASTRENSIS I, pp 147-164
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  64. ^ J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138
  65. ^ Stefan Pascu: A History of Transylvania, Wayne State Univ Pr, 1983, p. 57
  66. ^ Pavel Parasca, Cine a fost "Laslău craiul unguresc" din tradiţia medievală despre întemeierea Ţării Moldovei [=Who was "Laslău, Hungarian king" of the medieval tradition on the foundation of Moldavia]. In: Revista de istorie şi politică, An IV, Nr. 1.; ULIM;2011 ISSN 1857-4076
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  69. ^ Kurtović, Esad (January 2014). "Esad Kurtović, Konj u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni, Filozofski fakultet, Sarajevo 2014". Filozofski Fakultet, Sarajevo: 205.
  70. ^ „Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Тhome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Тhome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (09.08. 1428.g.), Div. Canc., XLV, 31v.
  71. ^ Sima Ćirković; (2004) The Serbs p. 130; Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 0631204717
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  73. ^ Vásáry, István (2005). Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0-521-83756-9.
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  75. ^ A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992
  76. ^ a b c Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
  77. ^ Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.
  78. ^ Mircea Mușat; Ion Ardeleanu (1985). From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. that in 1550 a foreign writer, the Italian Gromo, called the Banat "Valachia citeriore" (the Wallachia that stands on this side).
  79. ^ Z. Konečný, F. Mainus, Stopami minulosti: Kapitoly z dějin Moravy a Slezska/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia, Brno:Blok,1979
  80. ^ Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172
  81. ^ Marian Wenzel, "Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes—Who Made Them and Why?" Sudost-Forschungen 21 (1962): 102–143
  82. ^ Anca & N.S. Tanașoca, Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică, Editura Fundației Pro, 2004
  83. ^ Ilona Czamańska; (2015) The Vlachs – several research problems p. 14; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I, [3]

References

Further reading

External links

Look up Vlach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vlachs.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Vlachs".
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