United Nations General Assembly Building
View of the General Assembly Building
Map
General information
TypeAssembly hall
Architectural styleModern
LocationInternational territory in
Manhattan, New York City
Coordinates40°45′00″N 73°58′04″W / 40.75000°N 73.96778°W / 40.75000; -73.96778
Current tenantsUnited Nations General Assembly
GroundbreakingSeptember 14, 1948 (complex)
Construction startedFebruary 16, 1950
OpenedOctober 10, 1952
Renovated1978–1979, 2013–2014
Governing bodyUnited Nations
Dimensions
Other dimensions380 by 160 ft (116 by 49 m)
Technical details
Structural systemSteel superstructure
MaterialPortland limestone (façade)
Floor count5
Design and construction
Architect(s)United Nations Headquarters Board of Design
(Wallace Harrison, Oscar Niemeyer, Le Corbusier, etc.)
Main contractorGeorge A. Fuller Company
Turner Construction
Walsh Construction Company
Slattery Contracting Company

The United Nations General Assembly Building is part of the headquarters of the United Nations in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City, United States. It contains the main assembly hall of the United Nations General Assembly, the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the United Nations (UN). The building was designed by a group of architects led by Wallace Harrison. It is connected to the other buildings in the UN headquarters, including the Secretariat Building and the Dag Hammarskjöld Library. Although the building is physically within the US, it is exempt from some local regulations because the site is under UN jurisdiction.

The General Assembly Building is a four-story structure measuring 380 by 160 ft (116 by 49 m), with concave walls to the west and east, as well as a concave roof with a dome. The building contains a lobby for journalists and the general public to the north, as well as a lobby for delegates to the south. The central portion of the General Assembly Building is the General Assembly Hall, which has a seating capacity of 1,800 and measures 165 ft (50 m) long, 115 ft (35 m) wide, and 75 ft (23 m) tall. Each delegation has six seats in the hall, which face south toward a rostrum and a paneled semicircular wall with booths. The building also contains other spaces, including a delegates' lounge and the president of the United Nations General Assembly's offices on the second floor; a meditation room on the ground floor; and various shops and conference rooms in the basement.

The design process for the United Nations headquarters formally began in February 1947. The General Assembly Building was the third building to be constructed at the headquarters, after the Secretariat and Conference buildings. Construction of the General Assembly Building's steelwork began in February 1950, and the building was formally dedicated on October 10, 1952. The rapid enlargement of the United Nations prompted the UN to modify the hall's layout several times in the 1960s. The General Assembly Hall was closed for renovation from 1978 to 1979 to accommodate additional delegations. The building started to deteriorate in the 1980s due to a lack of funding, and UN officials considered renovating the complex by the late 1990s, but the project was deferred for several years. As part of a wide-ranging project that began in 2008, the General Assembly Building was renovated from 2013 to 2014.

Site

The General Assembly Building is part of the headquarters of the United Nations in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City.[1] It occupies a land lot bounded by First Avenue to the west, 42nd Street to the south, the East River to the east, and 48th Street to the north.[1][2] Although it is physically within the United States, the underlying land is under the jurisdiction of the United Nations (UN).[3] The site is technically extraterritorial through a treaty agreement with the US government, though it is not a territory governed by the UN.[4][5] Most local, state, and federal laws still apply within the UN headquarters.[5] Due to the site's extraterritorial status, the headquarters buildings are not New York City designated landmarks, since such a designation falls under the purview of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.[6]

The General Assembly Building occupies the center of the United Nations site, stretching roughly between 44th Street to the south and 45th Street to the north.[7] The building is directly connected to the Conference Building (housing the Security Council) at its southeast, and it also indirectly connects with the United Nations Secretariat Building and the Dag Hammarskjöld Library to the south.[2][8] The Japanese Peace Bell is just south of the building,[9] and a grove of sycamore trees is planted to the side.[10] On the western part of the site, along First Avenue, are the flags of the UN, its member states, and its observer states.[11] Outside of the UN headquarters, Trump World Tower and the Japan Society are to the northwest, and the Millennium Hilton New York One UN Plaza hotel is to the southwest.[1]

Historically, the site was part of a cove called Turtle Bay. The cove, located between what is now 45th and 48th Streets, was fed by a stream that ran from the present-day intersection of Second Avenue and 48th Street.[12] A creek from the southern end of modern-day Central Park also drained into Turtle Bay.[13] The first settlement on the site was a tobacco farm built in 1639.[14] The site was developed with residences in the 19th century.[9] Slaughterhouses operated on the eastern side of First Avenue for over a hundred years until the construction of the United Nations headquarters.[14] The UN purchased the site in 1946 under the sole condition that it could never slaughter cattle on the land.[15]

Architecture

The General Assembly Building was designed in the International Style by a team of ten architects working under planning director Wallace K. Harrison.[16] The Board of Design comprised N. D. Bassov of the Soviet Union; Gaston Brunfaut of Belgium; Ernest Cormier of Canada; Le Corbusier of France; Liang Seu-cheng of China; Sven Markelius of Sweden; Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil; Howard Robertson of the United Kingdom; G. A. Soilleux of Australia; and Julio Vilamajó of Uruguay.[17][18] In addition, David Fine of United States Steel oversaw the construction of the General Assembly Building.[19]

Form and facade

The building as seen from 44th Street, with its shallow dome at center

The five-story massing of the General Assembly Building is shaped similarly to a saddle.[20][21] The wide western and eastern elevations of the facade curve inward[20][22][23] and measure approximately 380 ft (120 m) wide.[22][24] The roof of the building also curves inward, leading Time magazine to compare the building to a tarpaulin.[23] The narrower northern and southern elevations are flat[20] and measure 160 ft (49 m) wide.[24] There are no windows on First Avenue. The original plans for the building called for the facade to be made of marble,[21] but the facade was ultimately built of Portland stone from England.[21][25] The facade contains about 12,000 cu ft (340 m3) of Portland stone.[26][27] There is a double-level emergency exit ramp facing First Avenue.[25]

In contrast to the rectangular Secretariat Building, the General Assembly Building has a curving massing; even the walls and floors are not perpendicular.[25] Le Corbusier, who had designed the building's massing, had intended for the curving shape to be the visual focal point of the entire headquarters complex.[28] The center of the building, directly above the General Assembly Hall, contains a shallow dome above it.[20][23] The building's roof was initially supposed to be an uninterrupted curve, but the dome was added after the chief of the United States Mission to the United Nations had suggested it.[29] According to one account, the inclusion of the dome was intended to convince United States Congress to approve funding for the headquarters more quickly, at a time when there was not much funding available for the project.[29][30]

The doorways to the General Assembly Building are on the southern and northern elevations of the facade.[31][32] The south elevation measures about 53.5 ft (16.3 m) tall;[32][33] it contains glass walls that are recessed within a marble frame and divided by a grid of metal window frames.[22][33][34] The north elevation contains vertical marble piers interspersed with photosensitive glass.[35] The architects wanted to create a lighting effect commonly seen in cathedrals, so they made the glass walls translucent.[36] Heating ducts are embedded within these marble piers.[37] The Canadian government donated seven nickel-and-bronze doors, which were installed at the main entrances of the building.[36][38] Each door measures about 4 ft (1.2 m) wide by about 10 ft (3.0 m) tall.[38] There are four bas relief panels on each door, which depict peace, justice, truth, and fraternity.[22][38] The southern entrance near 44th Street is used by delegates, while the northern entrance between 45th and 46th Street is used by the public.[39]

Interior

The building contains three levels of galleries; the delegates use the second level, while the public and members of the media use the first and third levels.[31][40] The passageways used by journalists and members of the public were physically separated from the passageways used by delegates.[41] In keeping with the UN's international character, the building's interior is decorated with furniture, artwork, and other fittings from around the world.[42] For example, the governments of India and Ecuador donated rugs and carpets,[43] while the Thai government donated seats.[42] The building also contains artwork donated by the governments of Belgium and Brazil, as well as a Foucault pendulum donated by the Netherlands.[44] In addition, the building contained over 3,000 specimens of plants, representing 20 species.[45] The interiors retain some of their 1950s-era design details, such as synchronized office clocks and vintage exit signs.[46]

Lobbies

Interior of the north lobby, with the stepped ramp in the background

The north lobby was designed as the entrance for journalists and members of the public.[31][40][47] Three balcony levels are cantilevered over the space.[48] The lobby measures 75 ft (23 m) high and is topped by a circular skylight measuring about 4 ft (1.2 m) across.[22] A statue of the ancient Greek god Poseidon, donated by the Greek government, stands in the middle of the lobby.[49][50] The space also contains a scallop-shaped information kiosk.[51] A stepped ramp leads from the ground level to the first balcony. It contained numerous species of plants, which were illuminated by concealed spotlights.[45] There is a 200 lb (91 kg) Foucault pendulum adjacent to the stepped ramp, donated by the Dutch government.[8][52] The left (east) wall of the north lobby contains a concourse leading to the south lobby, while the right (west) wall includes a meditation room.[22][53] The north lobby also contains passageways to meeting rooms, as well as space for exhibits.[47][53]

The south lobby is the delegates' entrance.[31][40][47] There is a hospitality room next to the delegates' lobby,[53] as well as two information desks in that lobby.[54] Directly behind the south lobby's glass facade is a set of escalators for delegates.[55] On the second floor is a tapestry designed by Belgian artist Peter Colfs, entitled Triumph of Peace.[56][54] The tapestry depicts numerous allegorical figures on a blue-and-green background.[56][57] Measuring 43 ft 6 in (13.26 m) wide and 28 ft 6 in (8.69 m) high,[54][56] it was the world's largest tapestry when it was completed.[58][59] Brazilian painter Candido Portinari also designed War and Peace, a pair of murals on the first floor. Each mural measures 46 by 34 ft (14 by 10 m).[54][60][61]

General Assembly Hall

"General Assembly Hall" redirects here. Not to be confused with General Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland.

The central feature of the building is the General Assembly Hall, which has a seating capacity of 1,800.[62] The room is 165 ft (50 m) long and 115 ft (35 m) wide.[63] The hall occupies the second through fourth stories of the building.[24][64] During planning, the General Assembly Hall was intended to accommodate 850 delegates, 350 journalists, and 900 members of the public.[23][65][a] As built, the main floor could seat either 636[66] or 750 delegates,[67] while the booths and balconies within the hall could accommodate 234 journalists and 800 members of the public.[66][67] By 1977, the hall could accommodate 1,060 delegates and alternate delegates; 160 journalists; 336 members of the public; and 542 advisers or guests of delegations.[8]

Rostrum
United Nations General Assembly hall, facing the rostrum
Full view of the hall

At the front (south) of the chamber is the rostrum containing the green marble desk for the President of the General Assembly, the Secretary-General, and the Under-Secretary-General for General Assembly Affairs and Conference Services.[22][62][68] There is also a podium designed in a similar style.[22][62] Behind the rostrum is the UN emblem on a gold background,[22][69] which is surrounded by shields measuring 3 ft (0.91 m) across.[22] The seal was originally surrounded by disc-shaped lights, but reporters could not take high-quality photos and videos of speakers at the rostrum as a result, so the lights were covered with gold leaf.[68] The south wall of the General Assembly Hall, behind the rostrum, was originally adorned with the seals of countries that were part of the UN in 1952.[55][70] American artist Bruce Gregory created the seals. The emblems of the UN's 51 original member states would have been mounted in English alphabetical order, while the seals of later additions would have been placed to the sides.[71] Of the 60 seals ordered, 54 were completed before Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld scrapped the seals in 1955.[70] The existing seals were removed in 1956.[72]

Flanking the rostrum, in the southern half of the room, is a paneled semi-circular wall that tapers as it nears the ceiling and surrounds the front portion of the chamber.[64][73] The lower section of the wall is made of a fluted wood (possibly mahogany) with either brass[22] or copper alloy.[30] The wall's upper section is made of acoustic tile.[22] The fluted wood walls were intended to improve the hall's acoustics.[37][55] The hall is surrounded by two levels of booths for interpreters, the media, and photographers.[22][64][41] These booths are placed within the fluted-wood panels;[55] there were initially 34 booths in total.[65] The booths are arranged in a similar layout to a theater in the round but are enclosed.[48] The north balcony of the General Assembly Hall contains a little-used double door with a marble doorway and circular handles. This door is most often used by high officials and royalty, and it leads to a corridor that slopes down steeply to the center of the hall.[42]

The ceiling above the rostrum is a shallow dome measuring 75 ft (23 m) high.[64][73] The dome is similar to those in buildings constructed for the US federal government.[30] The upper part of the dome is painted in a sky-blue color and is plain in design.[22][73] Four sets of floodlights surround the dome. In addition, the top of the dome contains a plaster medallion, with a skylight measuring 5 ft (1.5 m) across.[22]

Delegates' seats

The northern half of the room has a more standard layout, with delegates' seats on the main floor and a balcony surrounding this level.[22][73] Each delegation sits at a desk facing the rostrum.[24] Each delegate's desk is fitted with a fixed receiver, a microphone control, and buttons for electronic voting.[8][41] There are also earphones, allowing delegates to listen either to the speakers at the rostrum or to interpreters speaking in one of the official languages of the United Nations.[8][30] The delegations in the first row are selected randomly each year, and the remaining delegations are seated in English alphabetical order following the delegations in the front row.[74][75][b] The General Assembly Hall was expanded in 1980, when capacity was increased to accommodate the increased membership.[62] Each of the delegations has six seats in the hall:[74][76] three beige chairs for full delegates and three blue seats for alternate delegates.[30]

This section contains two murals, which were designed by the French artist Fernand Léger and painted by his student Bruce Gregory.[77][78] The murals each measure 30 ft (9.1 m) high.[77] The mural on the left wall is painted in orange, gray, and white, while the mural on the right wall is painted in blue, yellow, and white.[77][79] US president Harry S. Truman called the left mural "Scrambled Eggs" and the right mural "Bugs Bunny".[79] The murals were presented by the American Association for the United Nations on behalf of an anonymous donor.[30][79] Aline B. Louchheim characterized Léger's murals as "something handsome" and said that each of the murals' different shapes had vitality.[80] The ceiling of the hall lacks decorative finishes[37] and contains recessed lighting.[64]

Other first- and second-story spaces

On the second floor, directly behind the General Assembly Hall, is the GA 200 room.[53][81] The room, which spans either 2,000 or 2,500 sq ft (190 or 230 m2), contains offices for the Secretary-General of the United Nations and the President of the United Nations General Assembly.[82][83] The space is used for private meetings with the Secretary-General, and it also contains a press area, offices, and lounge.[81] The wall is decorated with an oil painting by Johannes Kjarval, a gift from the Icelandic government.[84] In 2005, a group of Swiss firms redecorated the space in a minimalist style. The modern design contains walnut-wood walls, a cream-colored carpet, sliding partitions, and custom furniture.[82][83] The offices for the General Assembly President and the Secretary-General are placed behind the sliding partitions. The room's furniture, walls, and floor contains the word "peace" inscribed in the official languages of the United Nations. In addition, the preamble to the charter of the United Nations is inscribed on the north wall, directly behind the rostrum.[82]

There is a delegates' lounge on the south side of the second floor, which also connects with the Conference Building along the East River.[85][86] In 1961, The New York Times characterized the room as "the place where understandings on critical matters are often prearranged".[87] The north wall of the delegates' lounge, facing the East River, is made of glass.[86][87][88] The lounge contained modern-style furniture such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona chairs and Florence Knoll's club chairs,[89] and the plants in the room were selected based on whether they could survive wind drafts and tobacco smoke.[45] The lounge originally measured 23 ft (7.0 m) high; a mezzanine was added above the lounge in the 1970s, but the mezzanine was removed in 2013 following a renovation designed by Rem Koolhaas and several Dutch designers. The modern lounge contains a resin bar and information desk, as well as a digital bulletin board to the west.[88] Next to the delegates' lounge is the East Foyer (which connects directly to the south lobby) and the Indonesian Lounge.[53][54] The Kiswa of the Holy Kaaba, a gift from the government of Saudi Arabia,[90] is hung in the Indonesian Lounge.[91]

The meditation room next to the north lobby can accommodate about 30 people.[22] When the meditation room opened in 1952, it was centered around a 250-year-old African mahogany stump.[92] This was replaced in 1957 with a piece of Swedish iron ore measuring 6.5 short tons (5.8 long tons; 5.9 t),[93][94] donated by the King of Sweden and the Government of Sweden.[95] The meditation room also contained a fresco by Swedish artist Bo Beskow, which was dedicated in 1957.[95][96] The meditation room was closed in the 1980s due to vandalism, though it was reopened in 1998.[94] The first story of the General Assembly Building also contains silk-rug portraits of all Secretaries-General of the United Nations, which were donated by Iran in 1997.[97][98]

Basement spaces

There is a large conference room and eight smaller conference rooms (originally four[8][99]) in the basement beneath the General Assembly Hall.[53] The large room can fit about 60 people, while the smaller rooms can fit 40 people each.[99] One of the conference rooms is decorated with wood paneling donated by the British government;[99][100][101] each panel depicts an animal, bird, or flower in the United Kingdom.[100] That room, which has 33 seats, is officially labeled as Conference Room 8 but is nicknamed the United Kingdom Room.[101] The governments of Australia and New Zealand also donated wood paneling for the conference rooms.[43]

The basement also has television and radio studios, a sound-recording studio, and a master control room for the United Nations headquarters' communication system.[8] The main TV studio, known as Studio H, is used for both live broadcasts and taped messages;[102] there are also five radio studios.[103] In addition, the basement has several facilities for visitors including a coffee shop, gift shop, stamp sales counter, souvenir shop, and bookstore.[8][53] The United Nations' Public Inquiries Unit is also housed in the basement.[104]

History

Development

Real estate developer William Zeckendorf purchased a site on First Avenue in 1946, intending to create a development called "X City", but he could not secure funding for the development.[105][106][107] At the time, the UN was operating out of a temporary headquarters in Lake Success, New York,[108] although it wished to build a permanent headquarters in the US.[109] Several cities competed to host the UN headquarters before New York City was selected.[109][110] John D. Rockefeller Jr. paid US$8.5 million for an option on the X City site,[109][111] and he donated it to the UN in December 1946.[111][112][113] The UN accepted this donation, despite the objections of several prominent architects such as Le Corbusier.[111][112] The UN hired planning director Wallace Harrison, of the firm Harrison & Abramovitz, to lead the headquarters' design.[111] He was assisted by a Board of Design composed of ten architects.[62][17][18]

Planning

The 2nd Secretary-General of the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld, in front of the General Assembly Building with the Secretariat Building in the background

The design process for the United Nations headquarters formally began in February 1947.[114][115][116] Each architect on the Board of Design devised his own plan for the site, and some architects created several schemes.[18][117] All the plans had to include at least three buildings: one each for the General Assembly, the Secretariat, and conference rooms.[18][118] The plans had to comply with several "basic principles". For instance, the General Assembly Building was to be built on the northern end of the site, opposite the Secretariat Building on the south end.[119] By March 1947, the architects had devised preliminary sketches for the headquarters.[119][120] The same month, the Board of Design published two alternative designs for a five-building complex, anchored by the Secretariat Building to the south and a pair of 35-story buildings to the north.[120][121][122]

After much discussion, Harrison decided to select a design based on the proposals of two board members, Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier.[123][17][124] Even though the design process was a collaborative effort,[117][124] Le Corbusier took all the credit, saying the buildings were "100% the architecture and urbanism of Le Corbusier".[120] The Board of Design presented their final plans for the United Nations headquarters in May 1947. The plans called for a 45-story Secretariat tower at the south end of the site, a 30-story office building at the north end, and several low-rise structures (including the General Assembly Building) in between.[125][126] The committee unanimously agreed on this plan.[118] In the original plan, the massing of the General Assembly Building had resembled a giant fan.[117][127]

The project was facing delays by mid-1947, when a slaughterhouse operator on the site requested that it be allowed to stay for several months.[15][128] The complex was originally planned to cost US$85 million.[129][130] Demolition of the site started in July 1947.[131][132] The same month, UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie and the architects began discussing ways to reduce construction costs by downsizing the headquarters.[130] The General Assembly voted to approve the design for the headquarters in November 1947.[24][132] By the following month, the architects were revising plans for the General Assembly Building, though the rest of the complex was to remain unchanged. The revised plan called for a "wedge-shaped" structure with blank walls.[127] There would have been two auditoriums, which would have faced each other in an hourglass-shaped arrangement, with straight western and eastern walls. The architects eliminated one of the auditoriums to reduce construction costs, but the hourglass-shaped layout of the building was retained, albeit with curved side walls.[133]

Construction

In April 1948, US president Truman requested that the United States Congress approve an interest-free loan of US$65 million to fund construction.[134][135] Because Congress did not approve the loan for several months, there was uncertainty over whether the project would proceed.[132][136] Congress authorized the loan in August 1948, of which US$25 million was made available immediately from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.[137][138] Lie predicted the US$25 million advance would only be sufficient to pay for the Secretariat Building's construction, thus delaying the completion of the other buildings.[139] The groundbreaking ceremony for the initial buildings occurred on September 14, 1948, when work on the Secretariat Building commenced.[132][140] The General Assembly Building would be the third and final major structure in the complex to be completed, with a projected opening date of late 1951.[141] Fuller Turner Walsh Slattery Inc., a joint venture between the George A. Fuller Company, Turner Construction, the Walsh Construction Company, and the Slattery Contracting Company, was selected in December 1948 to construct the Secretariat Building and the foundations for the remaining buildings.[142][143]

The site had been excavated by February 1949.[144][145] The project was delayed later that year due to a labor strike by steelworkers.[146][147] That December, the UN awarded a steel contract for the building to the American Bridge Company. By then, the structure was scheduled to be completed in 1952.[148][149] The contract, as finalized in March 1950, called for 10,000 short tons (8,900 long tons; 9,100 t) of steel at a cost of US$1.7 million.[150][151] In response to criticism that the general contracts for the construction of the UN headquarters had been awarded exclusively to American firms, UN officials indicated that they might hire foreign firms to supply materials for the General Assembly Building.[152] That July, the UN awarded a US$11 million contract to Fuller Turner Walsh Slattery Inc. for the construction of the General Assembly Building, as well as the northern half of the UN headquarters' parking lot (directly under the building).[153][154] At the time, the hall was slated to be completed in time for the sixth session of the General Assembly in 1952.[154]

Construction of the building's steelwork began on February 16, 1951, at which point the basement garage was nearly completed.[155] By that April, workers were rapidly erecting the steelwork for the General Assembly Building.[156] There were significant delays in importing the Portland stone, and only one-fourth of the total stonework had been delivered by May 1951. This led officials to express concern that the building would not be able to host the General Assembly in 1952.[26][27] In addition, the American Bridge Company said there were difficulties in constructing the steel structure for the dome.[27] All of the stonework had arrived by August 1951.[157] The building was nearly complete by May 1952, when the delegations voted to delay the start of the General Assembly session by one month, allowing workers to install electrical equipment and furnish the interior.[158] The General Assembly Building hosted an architectural exhibition of the United Nations headquarters in June 1952, prior to the building's official opening.[159]

Opening and early years

Seen from the northern end of the building, with the Secretariat Building in the background

The building was formally dedicated on October 10, 1952, when Secretary-General Trygve Lie presided over a ceremony there.[160][161] The event marked the completion of the United Nations headquarters, which had cost US$68 million to construct, about US$3 million over the original budget.[161] The first General Assembly session in the building commenced four days later on October 14.[161] Former US first lady Eleanor Roosevelt dedicated a gift shop in the General Assembly Building's basement the same day.[43] The General Assembly Hall could fit 90 delegations, more than enough to accommodate all 60 UN members at the time of the building's completion. The New York Times wrote in 1954: "It is taken for granted here that there will continue to be a considerable amount of waste space in the hall for some time to come."[162] The American Association for the United Nations started conducting guided public tours of the headquarters when the General Assembly Building was completed.[163][164] The guided tours were highly popular, attracting 250,000 guests during six months in 1953.[165]

UN officials installed a temporary meditation room next to the north lobby in late 1952,[92] although a lack of funds prevented the installation of a permanent room.[166] The UN built a security checkpoint next to the north lobby in February 1953,[167] and Columbia University Press began operating the bookshop in the building's basement later that year.[168] Under the tenure of Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld, the General Assembly Building also began hosting concerts on United Nations Day and other special occasions;[169] the first such concert took place on United Nations Day in 1954.[170] The UN dedicated Peter Colfs's Triumph of Peace tapestry at the building that October.[58][59] A coffee shop in the basement opened in August 1954 as part of a US$380,000 renovation of the basement,[171] and the seals in the Assembly Hall's rostrum were removed that year.[72] The meditation room next to the north lobby was remodeled in February 1957,[172] and Candido Portinari's War and Peace murals were dedicated at the building that September.[60]

UN expansion

By 1957, the UN had 82 member states and was expanding rapidly. UN officials planned to replace portions of the observers' seating areas with seats for delegates.[173] At the 1960 meeting of the General Assembly, Hammarskjöld had proposed a wide-ranging renovation program costing US$7.7 million, but this was not executed due to a lack of funds.[174] Instead, the UN commenced a smaller renovation of the General Assembly Hall and the adjacent Conference Building in June 1960,[175][176] which was estimated to cost US$100,000.[175] The UN removed over 100 observers' seats and installed desks for six additional delegations. The work was completed in August 1961.[177] The same year, Abstract Sculpture by American artist Ezio Martinelli[178] was mounted on the eastern elevation of the building's facade.[179] Prior to the 1962 General Assembly session, the UN reduced the size of the journalists' galleries so the hall could accommodate 108 delegations.[179] Even so, there was so little space that some delegates had to sit in the journalists' seating area during the 1962 meeting.[180][181]

The UN's planners had concluded that the headquarters could not fit additional delegations without undergoing significant renovations. To fit the new delegations, Secretary-General U Thant proposed either moving the journalists' seating areas or reducing each delegation to five seats.[182] In late 1962, the General Assembly's budgetary committee approved plans to install microphones for delegates and to expand the hall's seating capacity to accommodate 126 delegations, though the committee rejected a more expensive proposal to expand the headquarters.[180] Following complaints that the hall's cramped layout made it difficult to conduct roll call votes,[183] the General Assembly started testing an electronic voting system in 1964.[184] The UN also renovated the hall for US$3 million the same year. The work included reducing the number of seats for each delegation from 10 to 6; relocating the journalists' seating areas to make way for delegates' seating; and dividing part of the basement to create a TV studio and additional office space.[185]

South lobby of the General Assembly Building

The UN continued to expand through the 1970s, further straining its physical facilities.[186] By 1977, the General Assembly was considering expanding the Assembly Hall to accommodate up to 178 delegations.[187] A bronze bust of the composer Pablo Casals, who had performed at the General Assembly Hall twice, was dedicated in the north lobby the same year.[188] The Fuller Company began expanding the General Assembly Hall in January 1978 as part of a US$26 million renovation of the entire complex, designed by Harrison & Abramovitz. Workers installed new wiring under the concrete floors, and the UN hired a Canadian company to refurbish the delegates' chairs, since the manufacturer of the original chairs no longer existed. The first phase of the renovation was completed in September 1979, prior to the opening of the General Assembly session. The expanded hall could fit up to 182 delegations.[189] The renovation project as a whole was completed by 1981.[190][191]

All nations were given six General Assembly seats regardless of how large their delegations were.[74][76] Some of the smaller delegations had as few as one member and always left several seats empty, while other delegations had to alternate their seats between dozens of members.[74] Smoking was initially allowed in the entire complex, but the General Assembly banned smoking in some of the building's smaller rooms in 1983. At the time, people were still allowed to smoke within the General Assembly Hall and in private offices.[192] The General Assembly typically only met between September and December, but the UN continued to host tours of the hall throughout the year. In addition, the delegates' cafeteria and the basement shops were open to tourists.[193]

Renovation and 21st century

Due to funding shortfalls in the 1980s, the UN diverted funding from its headquarters' maintenance fund to peacekeeping missions and other activities.[194] By 1998, the building had become technologically dated, and UN officials considered renovating the headquarters.[195] The mechanical systems were so outdated that the UN had to manufacture its own replacement parts.[196][197] The New York Times wrote that "if the United Nations had to abide by city building regulations [...] it might well be shuttered".[194][198] At the time, the UN had proposed renovating the building for US$800 million, as UN officials had concluded that the long-term cost of renovations would be cheaper than doing nothing. The UN's proposed budget for 1999 included US$22 million for fixing the roofs of the General Assembly Building and other structures in the UN complex.[194] The UN commissioned a report from engineering firm Ove Arup & Partners, which published its findings in 2000.[199] The report recommended renovating the UN headquarters over a six-year period, including the General Assembly Hall.[6][199][200] The UN could not secure funding for the project at the time.[199]

After Switzerland joined the UN in 2002, the Swiss government renovated the GA 200 room behind the General Assembly Hall's rostrum, which was rededicated in 2005.[82][83] In addition, Ranan Lurie's mural Uniting Painting was temporarily installed in the north lobby in 2005, marking the first time that the UN allowed a large-scale independent art installation at its headquarters.[201] The UN decided to renovate its existing structures over a seven-year period for US$1.6 billion.[202] Louis Frederick Reuter IV originally designed the renovation, but he resigned in 2006 following various disputes between UN and US officials. Michael Adlerstein was hired as the new project architect.[196] Engineering firm Skanska was hired to renovate the Secretariat, Conference, and General Assembly buildings in July 2007.[203][204] At that point, the cost of the project had risen to US$1.9 billion.[196][204]

The renovation of the United Nations headquarters formally began in 2008, though other buildings were renovated first;[205] the same year, the General Assembly banned smoking in the remainder of the General Assembly Building.[206] The complex was retrofitted with various green building features as part of the project.[29] The General Assembly Building was closed for renovations on May 31, 2013.[207] During the project, the General Assembly met at a temporary building on the UN headquarters' North Lawn.[208] Audio speakers were installed in place of the hall's former ashtrays, which had become obsolete.[206] The project also included cleaning the walls, as well as removing asbestos fireproofing and mercury from the hall.[206] Workers installed an air-conditioning system under the General Assembly Hall's floor and added monitors to the desks.[209] The murals by Fernand Leger were also restored.[78] An ivory sculpture in the north lobby, a gift from the Chinese government, was also removed.[206] When the building reopened in September 2014, it was the last structure in the UN headquarters to have been upgraded to New York City building codes.[206]

Critical reception

When the building was completed in 1952, Architectural Forum wrote that the "new Assembly Hall is almost as different as possible from the expectation raised by its chaste marble shell".[210] According to Architectural Forum, the design of the building "marked an architectural shift—from emphasis on 'function' and structural logic to emphasis on form and the logic of art."[23] The New York Herald Tribune wrote that the roof "provides a dramatic foil to [the headquarters'] rigorous lines".[211] Life magazine characterized the building as having a "clifflike front of marble and glass" along with "pinch-waisted walls",[212] while the South China Morning Post said the building had been likened to a "modern motion picture palace".[2] Architectural Forum spoke in support of the design, saying it had arisen from "a different temper and a different approach from some of the best known modern masters".[73][213]

Many commentators were highly critical of the design.[73][214] Architectural Forum wrote: "Only a handful of the critics seemed willing to recognize that perhaps Harrison, a man of many notable accomplishments, might have had some good reason for deviating so far from canons of contemporary architecture."[214] George Howe of the Yale School of Architecture disagreed with Architectural Forum's characterization of the building as "popular baroque", saying: "I should prefer a more analytical adjective. One might call this interior, for example, the legislative phase of modern architecture."[21][214] Pietro Belluschi of the MIT School of Architecture and Planning was even more direct in his disapproval, saying: "If this is the fruit of 50 years' trial and error in architectural thinking, there is reason to be discouraged."[21][214] Architectural Forum also interviewed Robert Woods Kennedy, a younger architect who called it "eclecticism turned modern",[21][214] and Landis Gores, a modernist who said "the ineptness apparent everywhere in the Assembly Building cannot be excused by a counteroffensive against architectural principle".[215] One of the few supporters of the design was Nathaniel A. Owings of the architectural firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, who said it was a "very interesting and successful building, with nothing about it that wasn't a logical development of a reasonable research program".[216]

Some of the criticism arose from the fact that the building's massing did not necessarily reflect its function, contrasting with the views of many modern architects.[48] Architectural critic Lewis Mumford said that "one could forgive all the architectural lapses" in the complex when they viewed the buildings from the north.[21][217] Mumford likened the "billowing forms" of the north lobby's parapets to drawings by German architect Erich Mendelsohn.[21][217] British journalist Alistair Cooke wrote for The Manchester Guardian that the dome "looks as if it had keeled over in a bog of cement that had failed to harden".[67] The modernist architect Paul Rudolph said "the building is not really a product of the International Style but rather a background for a grade 'B' movie about 'one world' with Rita Hayworth dancing up the main ramp".[21][48] Rudolph also criticized the fact that the building's exterior did not at all resemble its interior.[73][35]

The General Assembly Building and its connected structures have been depicted in numerous films such as The Glass Wall (1953) and North by Northwest (1959).[218] The 2005 film The Interpreter was the first to actually be filmed inside the headquarters.[219][220] During the filming of The Interpreter in 2004, The New York Times wrote that the building "was not an instant hit with the architectural community when it opened in 1952, and it is interesting in light of this latest chapter in its history to see how its detractors chose to put it down".[221]

References

Notes

  1. ^ According to Progressive Architecture, the building had to accommodate 800 diplomats (80 nations with 5 delegates and 5 advisors each), 300 observers, 320 journalists, and 1,000 members of the public.[41]
  2. ^ For example, in 1952, the Soviet Union (seated under the name USSR), United Kingdom, and United States were seated in the front. The next countries alphabetically were Uruguay, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia, which were seated in the second row. Since Yugoslavia was the last country alphabetically, the third row contained the delegation of Afghanistan, the first country alphabetically. The rearmost row contained the delegation of South Africa, which preceded the Soviet Union alphabetically.[75]

Citations

  1. ^ a b c White, Norval; Willensky, Elliot; Leadon, Fran (2010). AIA Guide to New York City (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 343–344. ISBN 978-0-19538-386-7.
  2. ^ a b c "U.N. Headquarters: Described as an Architectural Typhoon Centre Visitors Usually Impressed United Nations". South China Morning Post. April 15, 1953. p. 10. ProQuest 1538823528.
  3. ^ Kelsen, H.; London Institute of World Affairs (2000). The Law of the United Nations: A Critical Analysis of Its Fundamental Problems : with Supplement. Collected Writings of Rousseau. Lawbook Exchange. p. 350. ISBN 978-1-58477-077-0. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2019.
  4. ^ Weber, Bruce (October 20, 1995). "At 50, U.N. Is Still a Stranger in New York". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  5. ^ a b "Agreement regarding the Headquarters of the United Nations" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. November 21, 1947. p. 12 (PDF p. 2). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 22, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2022.
  6. ^ a b "U.N. Weighs Rebuilding Its Complex". The New York Times. July 26, 2000. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  7. ^ Progressive Architecture 1950, pp. 60–61.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h UN Chronicle 1977, p. 37.
  9. ^ a b Fine, Max (January 14, 1958). "UN May Not Be So Popular, But Folks Like Building". Daily Defender. p. 9. ProQuest 493600161.
  10. ^ "United Nations Opens Formal Gardens to the Public". The New York Times. September 19, 1958. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved July 27, 2022.
  11. ^ Endrst, Elsa B. (December 1992). "So proudly they wave ... flags of the United Nations". UN Chronicle. findarticles.com. Archived from the original on January 19, 2012. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
  12. ^ "Turtle Bay Gardens Historic District" (PDF). National Register of Historic Places, National Park Service. July 21, 1983. p. 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
  13. ^ "Home of U.N. Rising Along East River". The Washington Post. May 9, 1949. p. B7. ISSN 0190-8286. ProQuest 152180408.
  14. ^ a b Iglauer 1947, p. 570.
  15. ^ a b Iglauer 1947, p. 572.
  16. ^ Churchill 1952, p. 109.
  17. ^ a b c Gray, Christopher (April 25, 2010). "The U.N.: One Among Many Ideas for the Site". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 27, 2017. Retrieved December 26, 2017.
  18. ^ a b c d Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 609.
  19. ^ Clark, Alfred E. (September 15, 1980). "David Fine, Engineer, Dies at 85; Directed Work on Many Bridges; Resident Engineer on Bridge Arch". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  20. ^ a b c d Architectural Forum 1950, p. 97.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 623.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Munn, Bruce W. (October 11, 1952). "U.N. to Open New Assembly Hall Tuesday". The Washington Post. p. 4. ISSN 0190-8286. ProQuest 152446859.
  23. ^ a b c d e "Art: The Big Tent". Time. May 29, 1950. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  24. ^ a b c d e UN Chronicle 1977, p. 36.
  25. ^ a b c Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 56.
  26. ^ a b Sullivan, Walter (May 24, 1951). "British Delay Hits U.N. Building Work; Failure to Deliver Limestone Holds Up Assembly Hall and May Bar 1952 Session". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  27. ^ a b c Rogers, John G. (May 24, 1951). "U. N. Assembly Building Lags; Steel Lacking: Project 2 Months Behind; Officials Worried It May Be Late for '52 Session". New York Herald Tribune. p. 2. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1322034717.
  28. ^ Architectural Forum 1952, p. 142.
  29. ^ a b c MacFarquhar, Neil (November 22, 2008). "Renovating the U.N., With Hints of Green". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  30. ^ a b c d e f Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 48.
  31. ^ a b c d Architectural Forum 1950, p. 99.
  32. ^ a b "United Nations General Assembly Building". Docomomo. August 20, 2021. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  33. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 58.
  34. ^ Architectural Forum 1950, p. 100.
  35. ^ a b Architectural Forum 1952, p. 145.
  36. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 40.
  37. ^ a b c Architectural Forum 1952, p. 147.
  38. ^ a b c "Canadian Gift Doors for U. N. Are on Way". The New York Times. August 9, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  39. ^ UN Chronicle 1977, p. 35.
  40. ^ a b c Architectural Forum 1952, p. 146.
  41. ^ a b c d Progressive Architecture 1950, p. 67.
  42. ^ a b c Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 42.
  43. ^ a b c "U. N. Gift Center Opened to Public; Mrs. Roosevelt Snips Ribbon Before Shops in Basement of Assembly Building". The New York Times. October 14, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  44. ^ "21 Nations Donate to U.N.; Gifts of $500,000 Value Accepted for Building and Decor Here". The New York Times. June 28, 1953. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  45. ^ a b c Fox, Harry (December 28, 1952). "House Plants Find a Home at United Nations; Strategically Located Displays Highlight Certain Architectural Features". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  46. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 100.
  47. ^ a b c Progressive Architecture 1950, p. 63.
  48. ^ a b c d Architectural Forum 1952, p. 144.
  49. ^ UN Chronicle 1977, p. 39.
  50. ^ "Poseidon of Artemission". United Nations Gifts. December 31, 1953. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  51. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 36.
  52. ^ "Foucault Pendulum". United Nations Gifts. December 7, 1955. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  53. ^ a b c d e f g "UN Directory" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 5, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  54. ^ a b c d e Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 61.
  55. ^ a b c d Life 1952, p. 115.
  56. ^ a b c "Triumph of Peace". United Nations Gifts. October 8, 1954. Archived from the original on April 19, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  57. ^ Louchheim, Aline B. (October 3, 1952). "Tapestry for U. N. Biggest in World; Planning Unit Accepts Design for Gift of Belgium That Will Adorn Lobby of Assembly". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  58. ^ a b "Belgium Gives Tapestry For the U.N. Assembly". The New York Times. October 9, 1954. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  59. ^ a b "Tapestry Perhaps Largest Ever Woven, Given to U. N.". New York Herald Tribune. October 9, 1954. p. 2. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1322557736.
  60. ^ a b "U.N. Gets Two Murals; Brazil Presents Works of One of Her Leading Artists". The New York Times. September 7, 1957. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  61. ^ "War and Peace (Peace)". United Nations Gifts. July 12, 1957. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  62. ^ a b c d e "Fact Sheet: United Nations Headquarters". United Nations. Archived from the original on November 18, 2010. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
  63. ^ "General Assembly". United Nations. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
  64. ^ a b c d e United Nations. "General Assembly". United Nations. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  65. ^ a b Architectural Forum 1950, p. 101.
  66. ^ a b "U. N. Assembly Building Here Nearly Ready: Will Permit Thousands to Hear Debate Daily at Its Meeting Next Month". New York Herald Tribune. September 5, 1952. p. 17. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1322263324.
  67. ^ a b c Cooke, Alistair (October 14, 1952). "Dome of Depression in New York: No "Stately Pleasure" for U.N.". The Manchester Guardian. p. 1. ProQuest 479479463.
  68. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 44.
  69. ^ "The General Assembly". United Nations. Archived from the original on March 19, 2011. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
  70. ^ a b "U. N. Shelves Plan to Adorn Its Hall; Artistic and Political Reasons Bar Use of State Seals". The New York Times. January 11, 1955. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018.
  71. ^ Teltsch, Kathleen (April 30, 1953). "U. S. Painter Does U.N. Coats-of-arms; Bruce Gregory Collects Much Odd Information in Work on Assembly Hall Seals". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  72. ^ a b "U.N.'s Emblem Alone Faces the Assembly Hall". The New York Times. September 15, 1956. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  73. ^ a b c d e f g Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 625.
  74. ^ a b c d Brooks, Geraldine (September 20, 1993). "It's U.N. Protocol: Six Chairs, No Office For Tajikistan's Man: Squeezing in New Dignitaries Causes Host of Indignities; My Country 'Tis of The'". The Wall Street Journal. p. A1. ISSN 0099-9660. ProQuest 746858140.
  75. ^ a b "Soviet Gets First Seat; Draw at U. N. Gives It Position in Assembly Hall". The New York Times. September 24, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  76. ^ a b Boffey, Philip M. (June 17, 1982). "Session on Disarmament Has Delegates in a Dither". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  77. ^ a b c Rosenthal, A. M. (August 29, 1952). "Abstract Murals Are Being Painted With Secrecy in U.N. Assembly Hall". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  78. ^ a b Binlot, Ann (August 26, 2014). "Touching-Up the Legers: U.N. To Reopen with Murals Restored". Observer. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  79. ^ a b c "Mural, East Wall (Scrambled Eggs)". United Nations Gifts. December 31, 1952. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  80. ^ Louchheim, Aline B. (September 7, 1952). "New Art at the U. N.; Leger's Abstract Panels Near Completion". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  81. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 52.
  82. ^ a b c d Bernstein, Fred A. (May 2005). "Neutral zone". Interior Design. Vol. 76, no. 7. pp. 248–249. ProQuest 234947619.
  83. ^ a b c Yang, Andrew (February 1, 2005). "The Chill Room". Metropolis. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  84. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 54.
  85. ^ Architectural Forum 1950, pp. 98–99.
  86. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 70.
  87. ^ a b Brewer, Sam Pope (October 21, 1961). "Back Room at the U.N.; Delegates' Lounge Provides Privacy For Quiet Talks on Explosive Issues". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  88. ^ a b Webb, Michael (November 2013). "U.N. North Delegates' Lounge". Contract. Vol. 54, no. 9. pp. 38–41. ProQuest 1460536302.
  89. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 71.
  90. ^ Blair, William G. (March 13, 1983). "U.N. Art Collection, Like the U.N., Keeps Growing". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  91. ^ "Unveiling of the Kiswa of the Holy Kaaba". United Nations Photo. August 2, 2022. Archived from the original on August 3, 2021. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  92. ^ a b "Meditation Room Limns Faith in U. N.; Haven for Prayer, Built With Aid of Public Contributions, Serves All Creeds". The New York Times. November 2, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  93. ^ Hornaday, Mary (December 3, 1956). "Remodeled Meditation Room: An Intimate Message From New York". The Christian Science Monitor. p. 22. ProQuest 509531764.
  94. ^ a b Schneider, Daniel B. (October 4, 1998). "F.Y.I." The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on September 19, 2018. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  95. ^ a b Cherif, Mary; Leroy, Nathalie; Banchieri, Anna; Silva, Armando Da. "DAG HAMMARSKJÖLD: The UN years ..." Welcome to the United Nations. Archived from the original on June 19, 2022. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
  96. ^ "U.N. Chamber Gets Swedish Mural". The New York Times. November 11, 1957. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  97. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 120.
  98. ^ "Silk Portraits of the Secretary-General". United Nations Gifts. October 28, 1997. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  99. ^ a b c "U. N. Assembly Building Getting Final Touches; Ready Sept 15: Building Construction at U. N. Headquarters Nearing Completion". New York Herald Tribune. July 5, 1952. p. 9. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1324027287.
  100. ^ a b Life 1952, p. 118.
  101. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 98.
  102. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 64.
  103. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 66.
  104. ^ Sandberg, Jared (March 26, 2003). "Cubicle Front Lines: U.N. Staffers Listen To an Agitated Public". The Wall Street Journal. p. B1. ISSN 0099-9660. ProQuest 398972609.
  105. ^ Boland, Ed Jr. (June 8, 2003). "F.Y.I." The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved July 9, 2010.
  106. ^ Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 606.
  107. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 12.
  108. ^ Rosenthal, A. M. (May 19, 1951). "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
  109. ^ a b c Progressive Architecture 1950, p. 58.
  110. ^ Adlerstein 2015, p. 371.
  111. ^ a b c d Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 13.
  112. ^ a b Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 607.
  113. ^ "Rockefellers Hail Zeckendorf's Role; Praises Real Estate Executive, as Well as O'Dwyer, Moses, for Aiding Deal on U.N. Site". The New York Times. December 18, 1946. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  114. ^ "Architects Nominated To U.N. Design Board" (PDF). Architectural Record. Vol. 110. March 1947. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  115. ^ "The U. N. Plans for Its New Headquarters in Manhattan". New York Herald Tribune. February 26, 1947. p. 1. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1291212043.
  116. ^ "40-Story Building to be U.N. Center; Skyscraper to Be Finished by October, 1948, Under Fastest of 3 Construction Plans". The New York Times. February 26, 1947. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  117. ^ a b c Iglauer 1947, p. 563.
  118. ^ a b Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 14.
  119. ^ a b Hamilton, Thomas J. (March 24, 1947). "Buildings Plotted in U.N. Site Here; Tentative Plan Puts 40-story Secretariat at South End – Monumental Plaza Provided". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  120. ^ a b c Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 612.
  121. ^ Barrett, George (March 27, 1947). "3 Tall Buildings in U.N. Plan For a Mechanized Capital; United Nations Capital Begins to Take Shape in Imagination of Designers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  122. ^ Donovan, Robert J. (March 27, 1947). "U. N. Planning To Put Up Two More Buildings: 35-Story Structures Near 48th St. Would Be for Offices, Special Agencies". New York Herald Tribune. p. 4A. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1291188571.
  123. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 15.
  124. ^ a b Adlerstein 2015, pp. 371–372.
  125. ^ Yerxa, Fendall (May 22, 1947). "Design of U. N. Workshop for Peace' Revealed: Two Buildings, 45 and 30 Stories, Being Planned; City Will Beautify Area City Plans to Improve Area Around United Nations Site". New York Herald Tribune. p. 1. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1318024597.
  126. ^ Barrett, George (May 22, 1947). "U.N. Capital Plans Stress Function; Final Sketches Are Revealed – 'Workshops for Peace' Aim of the Ten Designers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  127. ^ a b Barrett, George (December 7, 1947). "U.N. Experts Plan Building Changes; Work on Design to Set Off Assembly Hall in Manhattan as Symbol of Cooperation". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  128. ^ Barrett, George (June 15, 1947). "Occupant of Site Delays U.N. Start; Swift Subsidiary Fails to Get Out of East River Area – Seeks Further Leeway". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  129. ^ Churchill 1952, p. 111.
  130. ^ a b "U.N. Capital Cost to Be Cut Deeply; $2,000,000 to $10,000,000 Trim in Headquarters Outlay Is Requested by Lie". The New York Times. July 4, 1947. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  131. ^ "U.N. Site Clearing Begun by O'Dwyer; Mayor, Byron Price and Rogers Start the Demolition Work on East River". The New York Times. July 9, 1947. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  132. ^ a b c d Stern, Mellins & Fishman 1995, p. 617.
  133. ^ Architectural Forum 1950, pp. 97–99.
  134. ^ "Truman Asks Loan for U.n. Buildings" (PDF). The New York Times. April 8, 1948. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  135. ^ "$3,000,000 Cut In U.N. Plan for Site Is Advised: Tower and Garage Would Be Reduced; Cost Figure to Stay at $65,000,000". New York Herald Tribune. April 1, 1948. p. 13. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1327415157.
  136. ^ Barrett, George (June 21, 1948). "U.N. Officials Dismayed". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
  137. ^ "House Passes Bill for U.N. Site Loan; Vote Is 164 to 27 'Home for Stalin's Agents,' Foe Says – Joy at Lake Success" (PDF). The New York Times. August 6, 1948. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  138. ^ Ingalls, Leonard (August 6, 1948). "House Passes 65-Million U. N. Building Loan: Measure Is Sent to Truman; Ohioan Denounces U. N. as Haven for Red Spies". New York Herald Tribune. p. 1. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1327421149.
  139. ^ Barrett, George (June 13, 1948). "U. N. Forced to Plan Building Cuts By Congressional Delay on Loan". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  140. ^ "U.N. Breaks Ground for Its Capital; O'Dwyer Welcomes 'Plan for Peace'" (PDF). The New York Times. September 15, 1948. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  141. ^ Barrett, George (June 20, 1949). "U. N. to Make $2,250,000 Steel Contract Soon To Start Second Unit of East River Project". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  142. ^ "4 Companies Join Forces To Construct U.N.'s Home" (PDF). The New York Times. December 19, 1948. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  143. ^ "4 Companies Get Joint Contract For $24,000,000 U. N. Building: 39-Story Secretariat Structure To Be Started Next Month, Be Ready for Use in Fall of 1950; Bid Includes Foundations for All Buildings". New York Herald Tribune. December 19, 1948. p. 1. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1324181379.
  144. ^ "The U. N. Yesterday: Excavation Work at U. N. Site Completed Ahead of Schedule; Israel Renews Membership Bid". New York Herald Tribune. February 25, 1949. p. 4. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1326781947.
  145. ^ "U.N. Headquarters: Excavation Operations Completed Ahead of Schedule New York, Feb. 25". South China Morning Post. February 27, 1949. p. 10. ProQuest 1766496108.
  146. ^ Pett, Saul (October 23, 1949). "U.N. Lops Off Extras, Like Any Builder". The Washington Post. p. B9. ISSN 0190-8286. ProQuest 152137673.
  147. ^ "U. N. Fears Steel Strike May Delay Building Here". The New York Times. October 3, 1949. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 26, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  148. ^ "U. N. Yesterday: 51 Arab Refugees Return to Israeli Palestine; Contract for Steel for Assembly Building Let". New York Herald Tribune. December 23, 1949. p. 6. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1327396068.
  149. ^ Hamilton, Thomas J. (December 23, 1949). "U.N. Steel Supply for Assembly Set; But Building Will Not Be Ready for '51 Session – Delay Seen in Transfer to Manhattan". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  150. ^ "U. N. Yesterday: Assembly Building Steel Contract Is Signed; Poland Helps Work on Welfare Agenda". New York Herald Tribune. March 29, 1950. p. 10. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1327399175.
  151. ^ "U.N. Steel Contract Signed". The New York Times. March 29, 1950. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  152. ^ "U.N. Will Ask World for Furniture Bids; 37 Nations May Yield Skyscraper Proposals". The New York Times. March 2, 1950. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  153. ^ "U. N. Yesterday: $11,000,000 Contract for Assembly Building Signed; 9 Nations Report on Prostitution". New York Herald Tribune. July 1, 1950. p. 4. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1327265060.
  154. ^ a b Barrett, George (July 1, 1950). "Norway Makes Bid to Equip U.N. Room; Offer to Decorate and Furnish Security Council Chamber Is Accepted Informally". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  155. ^ "Work is Under Way on Final U.N. Building". The New York Times. February 16, 1951. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  156. ^ "Lie Agrees to Have Playground at U.N.; Area at Corner of East River Headquarters Will Be Set Aside for Children". The New York Times. April 7, 1951. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 27, 2017. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  157. ^ "Stone for U.N. Arrives; Delayed Shipments Come From Britain for Assembly Unit". The New York Times. August 11, 1951. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  158. ^ Hamilton, Thomas J. (May 30, 1952). "U.N. Assembly Here Due to Open Oct. 14; Postponement From Sept. 16 Is Held Certain Barring Any Unexpected Korea Action". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  159. ^ "U. N. Display Opening; Photographs, Building Models Will Be Shown Today". The New York Times. June 19, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  160. ^ "U. N. General Assembly Building in Use for First Time". New York Herald Tribune. October 10, 1952. p. 1. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1320035778.
  161. ^ a b c Teltsch, Kathleen (October 15, 1952). "U. N. Housewarming is Shining Success; New Permanent Headquarters Wins Warm Tribute From Delegates and Guests". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  162. ^ Rosenthal, A. M. (October 10, 1954). "Plans for New U.N. Members Run Into Same Old Snags; Assembly Will Consider Case of the 'Outs' But Prospect for Admission Is Bleak". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  163. ^ "Guided Tours of U. N. Arranged". The New York Times. May 11, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  164. ^ "Limits Placed on Visitors at U.N. Palace". The Washington Post. June 14, 1952. p. 13. ISSN 0190-8286. ProQuest 152483911.
  165. ^ Rosenthal, A. M. (August 30, 1953). "One World Wonder; The U. N. Headquarters here has become a startling magnet for tourists". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  166. ^ "Fund Lack Blocks U. N. Prayer Room; Permanent Chamber Is Put Off but New Assembly Building Will Have Temporary One". The New York Times. September 12, 1952. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  167. ^ Rosenthal, A. M. (February 27, 1953). "U. N. Buys an X-Ray Machine to Search for Bombs; Security Forces Build Outside Guardroom to Check Parcels". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  168. ^ "U. N. Shifts Bookshop; Columbia University Press to Run Headquarters Facility". The New York Times. July 31, 1953. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  169. ^ "Hammarskjold Greatly Extended U.N.'s Scope Through Leadership and Personal Initiatives?; Moscow Sought to Oust Him – He Got Ovation When He Declined to Leave Post". The New York Times. September 19, 1961. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  170. ^ McLaughlin, Kathleen (October 25, 1954). "9th U.N. Birthday Widely Observed; Leaders Attend Celebration Here – World Body's Aims Praised in Many Nationslanguage=en-US". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  171. ^ "U.N. Gets Coffee Shop; Restaurant for Tourists Open Today in Assembly Basement". The New York Times. August 6, 1956. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  172. ^ "U.N. Meditation Room Ready". The New York Times. February 5, 1957. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  173. ^ James, Michael (October 3, 1957). "Home of the U.N. Bulges at Seams; 82 Delegations Tax Facilities in East River Buildings-- Alterations Planned". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  174. ^ Hamilton, Thomas J. (May 7, 1962). "Crowded U.N. Seeks More Office Space". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 30, 2018. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  175. ^ a b Feron, James (June 5, 1960). "U.N. Is Providing for New States; Begin $100,000 Renovation Program to Accommodate Ten More Members". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  176. ^ "U.N. Outgrowing Its Quarters". The Hartford Courant. June 27, 1960. p. 2. ProQuest 564476747.
  177. ^ "Assembly Adds Seats; More U. N. Accommodations Provided for Delegates". The New York Times. August 21, 1961. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  178. ^ "Abstract Sculpture". United Nations Gifts. October 30, 1961. Archived from the original on August 8, 2022. Retrieved August 10, 2022.
  179. ^ a b "Sculpture Presented to U.N." The New York Times. October 31, 1961. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  180. ^ a b O'Kane, Lawrence (November 18, 1962). "U.N. Cry Goes Up for Elbowroom; Rapid Rise in Membership Is Taxing Facilities Growth Exceeded Expectation". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  181. ^ Fleming, Louis B. (September 4, 1962). "Too Close for Comfort at U.N. Headquarters: World Organization Will Need Some More Buildings if It Continues to Grow". Los Angeles Times. p. 21. ProQuest 168169565.
  182. ^ Hamilton, Thomas J. (August 20, 1962). "U.N. Will Expand Space in Building; $10,000,000 Program Due to be Submitted by Thant". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  183. ^ Ronan, Thomas P. (November 20, 1963). "Thant Seeks $11 Million to Expand U.N. Facilities". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  184. ^ "U.N. Assembly Is Trying Push‐Button Balloting". The New York Times. December 1, 1964. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  185. ^ "U.N. Building Undergoing $3 Million Remodeling Job". The Central New Jersey Home News. January 10, 1964. p. 7. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  186. ^ Shannon, Don (August 29, 1973). "U.N. Membership Bulges As Mini-States Multiply". The Austin Statesman. p. 36. ProQuest 1504131258.
  187. ^ "Assembly Approves Plan to Transfer Some Offices from New York to Vienna". UN Chronicle. Vol. 14, no. 1. January 1977. pp. 77–78. ProQuest 1824643104.
  188. ^ "A bronze bust honouring the late maestro Pablo Casals, musician and world citizen, was dedicated by the Secretary-General, Kurt Waldheim, at a ceremony held on 11 March in the visitors' lobby of the General Assembly building...". UN Chronicle. Vol. 14, no. 4. April 1977. p. 58. ProQuest 1824643473.
  189. ^ Rogg, Penny (November 4, 1979). "Growing U.N. Expands". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 1, 2022.
  190. ^ Nossiter, Bernard D. (June 7, 1981). "UNICEF, Going Against Trend, Plans Big Expansion; Notes on the U.N." The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  191. ^ Stern, Fishman & Tilove 2006, p. 414.
  192. ^ Heller, Susan; Anderson; Dunlap, David W. (August 27, 1985). "New York Day by Day; U.N. Will Lose Some Smoke-filled Rooms". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  193. ^ Meisler, Stanley (June 13, 1993). "U.N. Now a Hot Spot Even for Visitors". Sun Sentinel. p. 4J. ProQuest 388797584.
  194. ^ a b c Wren, Christopher S. (October 24, 1999). "International Symbol of Neglect; U. N. Building, Unimproved in 50 Years, Shows Its Age". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  195. ^ Adlerstein 2015, p. 374.
  196. ^ a b c Hoge, Warren (November 28, 2007). "After 10 Years and 3 Plans, U.N. Renovation Is in Sight". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on November 30, 2012. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  197. ^ Freedman, Alix M.; Spindle, Bill (December 19, 2003). "The U.N.: Searching for Relevance; Rescue Mission: Now at the Top Of U.N.'s Agenda: How to Save Itself; New Threats Like Terrorism Spark a Broad Rethinking; Spread Out or Scale Back?; Kofi Annan: 'Fork in the Road'". The Wall Street Journal. p. A.1. ISSN 0099-9660. ProQuest 398857148.
  198. ^ Stern, Fishman & Tilove 2006, pp. 414–415.
  199. ^ a b c Stern, Fishman & Tilove 2006, p. 415.
  200. ^ Associated Press (July 23, 2000). "U.N. Wants Renovations for Headquarters". Orlando Sentinel. p. A19. ProQuest 279470869.
  201. ^ Schneider, Daniel B. (November 3, 2005). "United Nations Opens Door to Painting Planned to Unite World". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on August 2, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  202. ^ Hoge, Warren (April 18, 2006). "Renovation of U.N. Complex Stalled by U.S., an Official Says". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  203. ^ "A $1B facelift for UN complex". Newsday. July 28, 2007. p. 7. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022 – via newspapers.com.
  204. ^ a b Quirk, James (August 19, 2007). "Think big, aim big; Parsippany firm parlayed experience with major projects to land U.N. renovation job". The Record. p. B01. ProQuest 426444158.
  205. ^ Worsnip, Patrick (May 5, 2008). "U.N. headquarters renovation launched in New York". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 28, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  206. ^ a b c d e Sengupta, Somini (September 24, 2014). "A Safer, Cleaner United Nations Hall". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 5, 2017. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  207. ^ "Photo: The newly renovated General Assembly Hall at the United Nations". UPI. September 17, 2014. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  208. ^ Dunlap, David W. (January 6, 2016). "Retiring a U.N. Building Not Quite Fit for the World Stage". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  209. ^ Parent, Marie-Joelle (August 29, 2010). "Under Construction ; New York headquarters of United Nations set for a much-needed $2B facelift". The Toronto Sun. p. 22. ProQuest 2223031704.
  210. ^ Architectural Forum 1952, p. 141.
  211. ^ "Stone, Steel—and Hope". New York Herald Tribune. May 21, 1952. p. 22. ISSN 1941-0646. ProQuest 1324198965.
  212. ^ Life 1952, p. 114.
  213. ^ Architectural Forum 1952, pp. 147–148.
  214. ^ a b c d e Architectural Forum 1952b, p. 114.
  215. ^ "Window Leaks Overcome" (PDF). Architectural Forum. Vol. 98. March 1953. p. 88. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
  216. ^ Architectural Forum 1952, p. 148.
  217. ^ a b Mumford, Lewis (March 14, 1953). "The Sky Line: United Nations Assembly". The New Yorker. Vol. 29. pp. 76, 79. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  218. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 25.
  219. ^ James, Caryn (April 28, 2005). "A Thriller Stars the U.N., as Itself". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 7, 2022. Retrieved July 26, 2022.
  220. ^ Betsky & Murphy 2005, p. 26.
  221. ^ Hoge, Warren (August 2, 2004). "A Coup de Hollywood at the United Nations; Persistent Sydney Pollack Succeeds Where Hitchcock Failed, in Getting Nod to Shoot on Location". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved August 2, 2022.

Sources

Wikimedia Commons has media related to United Nations General Assembly Building.
Categories