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((Short description|Overview of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire))
((For|the Armenians in modern Turkey|Armenians in Turkey))
((Use dmy dates|date=May 2020))
((multiple issues|
((More citations needed|date=April 2013))
((POV|date=January 2013))
))
((History of Armenia|expanded=age4))
((Social structure in the Ottoman Empire sidebar))
[[File:Six Vilayets ethnic groups.png|thumb|Ethnic map of six Armenian Vilayets in the [[Ottoman Empire]] according to available information.]]
The [[Ottoman Armenian population]] mostly belonged to either the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] or the [[Armenian Catholic Church]]. They were part of the [[Armenian millet]] until the [[Tanzimat|Tanzimat reforms]] in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. Armenians were a minority in the Empire. They played what would later be seen as a crucial role in Ottoman industry and commerce, and Armenian communities existed in almost every major city of the empire. Despite this, Armenians were heavily persecuted by the Ottoman authorities especially from the latter half of the 19th century, culminating in the [[Armenian Genocide]].

==Background==
((see also|State organisation of the Ottoman Empire))
[[File:Armenian.jpg|thumb|180px|An "[[Bey|Armenian bey]]", the executive authority on Armenian [[reaya]]. The bey was part of [[State organisation of the Ottoman Empire#Provincial governance (civil administration)|civil administration]].]]

The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of [[Muslim world|Islam]]. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite shape in the first half of the sixteenth century under [[Suleyman I]], also known as "Lawgiver". The [[Ruling institution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] visualized two separate "establishments" to share state power, one responsible for governing a nation's citizens and the other its military. "The Ottomans left civic control to the civic institutions. Historians often label the Ottoman sociopolitical construct the "[[Ottoman System]]". Noteworthy, however, the term "[[Ottoman System]]" conveys a sense of structural rigidity that probably was nonexistent throughout the Ottoman period.

The Armenian population's integration was partly due to the nonexistent structural rigidity throughout the initial period. [[Armenian people]], related to the issues of their own internal affairs were administered by the [[State organisation of the Ottoman Empire#Provincial governance (civil administration)|civil administration]]. Townspeople, villagers and farmers formed a class called the flock/[[reaya]], including Armenian reaya. Civil and judicial administration was carried out under a separate parallel system of small municipal or rural units called ''[[qadaa|kaza]]s.'' The civil system was considered a check on the military system since [[bey]]s, who represented executive authority on reaya, could not carry out punishment without a sentence from the religious leader of the person. Also, the Sultan was beyond the mentioned control. The Ecumenical Patriarchate was the leader of the Armenian People. This whole structure was named in the Armenian case [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)#Armenians|Armenian Millet]].

During the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period, the Armenian Church was not allowed to operate in Constantinople, because the Greek Orthodox Church regarded the Armenian Church as [[Heresy|heretical]]. With the establishment of [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]], Armenians became religious leaders, and bureaucrats under the Ottoman Empire became more influential than just their own community. The idea that two separate "establishments" shared state power gave people a chance to occupy important positions, administrative, the religious-legal, and the social-economic.

Armenians occupied important posts within the Ottoman Empire, [[Artin Dadyan Pasha]], who served as minister of foreign affairs from 1876 to 1901, is one of many examples of Armenian citizens who played a fundamental role in the sociopolitical sphere of the Ottoman Empire.

==Role of Armenians in the Ottoman economy==
Certain elite Armenian families in the Ottoman Empire gained the trust of the Sultans and were able to achieve important positions in the Ottoman government and the Ottoman economy. Even though their numbers were small compared to the whole Ottoman Armenian population, this caused some resentment among Ottoman nationalists. The life of the rest of the common Armenians was a very difficult existence because they were treated as second class citizens.
Those elite Armenians that did achieve great success were individuals such as [[Abraham Pasha]], and [[Gabriel Noradunkyan]] who became secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The Dadian family controlled the entire munitions industry in the Ottoman Empire. [[Calouste Gulbenkian]] became one of the main advisors of the [[National Bank of Turkey]] and the Turkish Petroleum Corporation, which later became the Iraqi Oil Corporation.
Historian A. Tchamkerten writes "Armenian achievements in the Empire was not only in trade, however. They were involved in almost all economic sectors and held the highest levels of responsibility. In the 19th century, various Armenian families became the Sultan's goldsmiths, Sultan's architects and took over the currency reserves and the reserves of gold and silver, including customs duty. Sixteen of the eighteen most important bankers in the Ottoman Empire were Armenian". (Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian: The man and his work. Lisbon: Gulbenkian Foundation Press.2010) Ottoman Armenians were overrepresented in commerce.<ref name="Oxford University Press">((cite book |last1=Bloxham |first1=Donald|author-link=Donald Bloxham |title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians|title-link=The Great Game of Genocide |date=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-927356-0 |language=en|pages=8–9))</ref> As [[middleman minorities]], despite the wealth of some Armenians,<ref name="Oxford University Press"/> their overall political power was low, making them especially vulnerable.

===Patriarchate of Constantinople===
((See also|Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople))
[[File:Armenianreligious.jpg|thumb|180px| [[Costumes of the Ottoman Empire]] extending to [[Muslims]], Christians, [[Jewish]] communities, clergy, tradesmen, state and military officials were strictly regulated during the reign of [[Süleyman the Magnificent]].]]
After [[fall of Constantinople|Constantinople fell]] to the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1453, the patriarchate came to care more directly for all the Orthodox living in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Hovagim I was at the time the Metropolitan of [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]]. In 1461, Hovagim I was brought to [[Constantinople]] by [[Sultan Mehmed II]] and established the [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople]] for political reasons. [[Sultan Mehmed II]] wanted Armenian-Greek separation. Constantinople become the real center of their ecclesiastical and national life. The Armenian patriarch and not the Catholicos of Etchmiadzin, was their most important national dignitary, as part of Mehmed's wish. The largest Armenian community in the world lived in the Sultan's capital and his civil-ecclesiastical authority made the Sultan the most powerful official for Armenians in practice. Probably, before the Ottoman conquest in 1453 there had been no Armenian churches in [[Constantinople]]. After 1453, 55 Armenian churches were built in [[Istanbul]].<ref>((Cite book|last=Mansel|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LrnvC98bNSoC&q=from+1453+to+me+present+fifty-five+new+armenian+churches&pg=PT60|title=Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453-1924|date=2011-11-10|publisher=John Murray Press|isbn=978-1-84854-647-9|language=en))</ref>

Until the promulgation of the [[Hatt-i Sherif]] of 1839, the patriarch and his clients, within limits, possessed penal authority over the Armenian people. At the capital the patriarch had his own jail, and maintained a small police force. His authority over his clergy being absolute, he could imprison or exile them at will; and while he was compelled to secure the consent of the Sultan to imprison or exile laymen of his community, the necessary [[firman]] was very easily obtained. The patriarchal system of government, in placing civil powers in the hands of high ecclesiastics, was an outcome of the fact that the Sultan made no distinction between church and community, and often lent the weight of its authority to maintain the integrity of the church.

===Armenian village life===
In villages, including those of which the population was chiefly Muslim, the Armenian quarters were settled in groups among other parts of the population. Compared to others, Armenians lived in well-built homes. The houses were arranged one above the other, so that the flat roof of the lower house serves as the front yard of the one above it. For safety, the houses were huddled together. Armenian dwellings were adapted to the extremes of temperature in the highlands of [[Western Armenia]] (renamed [[Eastern Anatolia]] in 1941). In summer the thick walls and earth-covered roofs kept the rooms cool. The natural and agricultural traditions of Armenians were similar to others, but characteristics can also be found in [[Xenophon]], who described many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality.<ref>((cite web|url=http://armenian-history.com/Nyuter/HISTORY/ArmeniaBC/armenia_as_xenophon_saw_it.htm
|access-date=3 September 2008
|title=Armenia as Xenophon saw it
|date=21 June 2008
|first=Smbat
|last=Minasyan
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080827230631/http://www.armenian-history.com/Nyuter/HISTORY/ArmeniaBC/armenia_as_xenophon_saw_it.htm| archive-date= 27 August 2008 | url-status= live))</ref> He related that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the [[Persian people|Persians]].<ref name="Xenophon">[[Anabasis (Xenophon)]], [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1170/1170-h/1170-h.htm#2H_4_0032 IV.v].2–9.((Verify source|date=September 2008))</ref>

The [[Bey]] or [[Elder (religious)|elder]] was something of a leader for the village, and his house was typically the most luxurious dwelling in a village. It was not uncommon to have three priests for thirty-five families. Most Armenians travelled on horseback to neighbouring villages, sometimes for religious ceremonies (like the Van festival), sometimes to fetch a bride, accompanying her, with musical instruments and clapping of hands, to their own village.

==Ottoman Armenia, 1453–1829==
[[File:Moll, Herman. Turkey in Asia; or Asia Minor &c. 1736.jpg|thumb|Western Armenia in the first half of the 18th century. Herman Moll's map, 1736]]
[[File:1818 Pinkerton Map of Turkey in Asia, Iraq, Syria, and Palestine - Geographicus - TurkeyAsia-pinkerton-1818.jpg|thumb|Western Armenia on the Ottoman Empire map. John Pinkerton, 1818]]
[[Armenians]] preserved their culture, history, and [[language]] through the course of time, largely thanks to their distinct [[Armenian Apostolic Church|religious identity]] among the neighboring [[Turkish peoples|Turks]] and [[Kurds]]. Like the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and [[Jewish]] minorities of the [[Ottoman Empire]], they constituted a distinct [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]], led by the [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople]]. Under this system, Christians and Jews were considered [[Minority religion|religious minorities]]/[[second-class citizens]]; they were subjected to elevated taxation, but in return they were granted autonomy within their own religious communities and were exempted from military service. Growing religious and political influence from neighboring communities necessitated implementation of security measures that often required a longer waiting period for minorities to seek [[legal recourse]] in the courts.<ref>[http://www.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/a2a27112da97de9b85256f7100617ec7/FCE9A8AE241CBCE185256F8D006471A0/$file/AG+Chapter+2.pdf We and They: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire]  ((webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121034200/http://www.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/a2a27112da97de9b85256f7100617ec7/FCE9A8AE241CBCE185256F8D006471A0/%24file/AG%2BChapter%2B2.pdf |date=21 November 2006 ))</ref> Under Ottoman rule, Armenians formed three distinct ''millet''s: [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox Gregorians]], [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholics]], and [[Armenian Evangelical Church|Armenian Protestants]] (in the 19th century).<ref>[[Ilber Ortayli|Ortaylı, İlber]]. ''Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı (The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire)'', İstanbul, Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), 2006. pp. 87–89. ((ISBN|975-263-490-7)) (the book is in Turkish)</ref>

After many centuries of [[Turkish people|Turkish]] rule in [[Anatolia]] and [[Armenian Highlands|Armenia]] (at first by the [[Seljuks]], then a variety of [[Anatolian beyliks]] and finally the Ottomans), the centres with a high concentration of Armenians lost their geographic continuity (parts of [[Van Vilayet|Van]], [[Bitlis Vilayet|Bitlis]], and [[Mamuret-ul-Aziz Vilayet|Kharput]] [[Wilayah|vilayets]]). Over the centuries, tribes of [[Turkish people|Turks]] and [[Kurds]] settled into [[Anatolia]] and [[Armenian Highland|Armenia]], which was left severely depopulated by a slew of devastating events such as the [[Roman-Persian wars|Byzantine-Persian Wars]], [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]], [[Turkic migration|Turkish migration]], [[Timeline of Mongol conquests|Mongol Invasions]] and finally the bloody campaigns of [[Timur|Tamerlane]].<ref>Wolf-Dieter Hütteroth and Volker Höhfeld. ''Türkei'', Darmstadt 2002. pp. 128–132.</ref>

In addition, there were the century-long [[Ottoman-Persian Wars]] between the rival empires, the battlegrounds of which ranged over [[Western Armenia]] (therefore large parts of the native lands of the Armenians), causing the region and its peoples to be passed between the Ottomans and Persians numerous times. The wars between the arch-rivals started from the early 16th century and lasted till well into the 19th century, having disastrous effects for the native inhabitants of these regions, including the Armenians of [[Western Armenia]].

Owing to these events, the composition of the population had undergone (ever since the second half of the medieval period) a transformation so profound that the [[Armenians]] constituted, over the whole extent of their ancient [[Armenian Highland|homeland]], no more than a quarter of the total inhabitants.<ref>M. Canard: "Armīniya" in ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Leiden 1993.</ref><ref>G. L. Selenoy and N. von Seidlitz: "Die Verbreitung der Armenier in der asiatischen Türkei und in Trans-Kaukassien", in: ''Petermanns Mitteilungen'', Gotha 1896.</ref><ref>McCarthy, Justin: ''The Ottoman Peoples and the end of Empire''; London, 1981; p.86</ref> Despite this they kept and defended factual autonomy in certain isolated areas like [[Sason|Sassoun]], [[Çatak|Shatakh]], and parts of [[Dersim]].<ref>((Cite book|title=Armenian Organization and Ideology Under Ottoman Rule: 1908–1914|last=Kaligian|first=Dikran Mesrob|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2009|isbn=9781412807753|pages=30–39–40))</ref> An Armenian stronghold and a symbol of factual Armenian autonomy, Zeitoun (Ulnia) was located between the Six Vilayets and [[Cilicia]], which also had a strong Armenian presence ever since the creation of the Principality (and then Kingdom) of [[Lesser Armenia]]. However, the destruction of the Kingdom by the [[Ramadanids|Ramadanid]] tribe and the subsequent rule by Muslim powers such as the [[Dulkadirids]], the [[Mamluks]] and the Ottomans led to ever increasing numbers of Muslims in the region until finally the [[Armenian genocide|genocide]] removed the remaining vestiges of the Armenian people.

There were also significant communities in parts of [[Trebizond Vilayet|Trebizond]] and [[Ankara Vilayet|Ankara]] vilayets bordering [[Six vilayets]] (such as in [[Kayseri]]). After the Ottoman conquests many Armenians also moved west and settled in Anatolia, in large and prosperous Ottoman cities like [[Constantinople]] and [[Smyrna]].

==Western Armenia, 1829–1918==
((See also|Russian Armenia))
[[File:Constantinople(1878)-Armenian and Turkish retailers.png|thumb|Armenian & Turkish Retailers.]]
The remaining Ottoman Armenia, composed of the [[Six vilayets]] ([[Erzurum Vilayet|Erzurum]], [[Van Vilayet|Van]], [[Bitlis Vilayet|Bitlis]], [[Diyarbekir Vilayet|Diyarbekir]], [[Mamuret-el-Aziz Vilayet|Kharput]], and [[Sivas Vilayet|Sivas]]<ref>((Cite web | last = Cahoon | first = Ben | year = 2000 | website = WorldStatesmen.org | url = http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Armenia.html | title = Armenia )).</ref>) up to World War I, under Ottoman rule, was also referred to as Western Armenia.

===Armenians during the 19th century===
[[File:Caloustegulbenkian.jpg|thumb|[[Calouste Gulbenkian]], internationally known businessman and philanthropist born in 1869 at [[Üsküdar]]]]
Aside from the learned professions taught at the schools that had [[List of Armenian schools in the Ottoman Empire|opened throughout the Ottoman Empire]], the chief occupations were trade and commerce, industry, and agriculture. The peasants were agriculturists. In the empire, Armenians were raised to higher occupations, like [[Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian]] was a businessman and philanthropist. He played a major role in making the petroleum reserves of the Middle East available to Western development. The Armenian Press and literature during this period established institutions that were critical; this attitude has been invaluable in reforming abuses and introducing improvements in Armenian communities. Thus their critical instinct was positive, rather than negative. Armenians organized themselves for different objects; witness their numerous societies, clubs, political parties, and other associations. [[Hovsep Pushman]] was a painter who became very famous in the Empire. During this period Armenians would establish a church, a school, a library, and a newspaper. [[Sargis Mubayeajian]] was a prolific and multifarious writer educated in [[Istanbul|Constantinople]]. Many of his works are still scattered in Armenian periodicals.

Many Armenians, who after having emigrated to foreign countries and becoming prosperous there, returned to their native land.<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.ru.nl/publish/pages/533483/reportarmeniafinal.pdf|title=Return Migration to Armenia|last=Johansson|first=Alice|date=January 2008|website=Radboud Universiteit))((Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes ))</ref> [[Alex Manoogian]] who became a philanthropist and active member of the [[Armenian General Benevolent Union]] was from Ottoman lands (modern [[İzmir]]), [[Arthur Edmund Carewe]], born Trebizond, become an actor in the silent film era.

Armenians occupied important posts within the Ottoman Empire, [[Artin Dadyan Pasha]] served as Minister of foreign affairs of the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1901 and is an example that Armenian citizens served the Ottoman Empire.

((See also|Balyan family|Vartan Pasha|Güllü Agop|Hampartsoum Limondjian|Kemani Tatyos Ekserciyan|))

====Eastern Question====
((See also|Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|Eastern Question))

The [[Eastern Question]] (normally dated to 1774) is used in [[History of Europe|European history]] to refer to the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the [[Ottoman Empire]] during the 18th century; including instability in the territories ruled by the Ottoman Empire. The position of educated and privileged Christians within the Ottoman Empire improved in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the Ottomans increasingly recognized the missing skills which the larger Ottoman population lacked, and as the empire became more settled it began to feel its increasing backwardness in relation to the European powers. European powers on the other side, engaged in a power struggle to safeguard their militaristic, strategic and commercial interests in the Empire, this gave motivation to the powers to help people in need. The [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]] as a direct result of enlightenment of Christian millets through education, was the dominant theme. Armenians, However, for the most part, remained passive during these years, earning them the title of ''millet-i sadıka'' or the "loyal millet".<ref>[[Vahakn Dadrian|Dadrian, Vahakn N]]. ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus''. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1995, p. 192. ((ISBN|1-57181-666-6))</ref>

The Eastern Question gained even more traction by the late 1820s, due to the [[Greek Enlightenment]] and [[Greek War of Independence]] setting an example for making independence against the Ottomans, and along with several countries of the [[Balkans]], frustrated with conditions, had, often with the help of the Powers, broken free of Ottoman rule. The Great Power [[Imperial Russia]] stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire; on the other hand, Austria and the United Kingdom deemed the preservation of Empire to be in their best interests. The position of France changed several times over the centuries. Armenian involvement on the international stage would have to wait until [[Armenian national awakening|the Armenian national awakening]], which the [[Armenian Question]] as used in European history, became commonplace among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the [[Congress of Berlin]] (1878). The Armenian national ideology developed long after the Greek movement. However, the factors contributing to the emergence of [[Armenian nationalism]] made the movement far more similar to that of the Greeks than those of other ethnic groups.<ref>[[Richard G. Hovannisian|Hovannisian, Richard]], ''The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics'', pg.129</ref>

===Reform implementation, 1860s–1880s===
((See also|Tanzimat|Armenian question))
The three major European powers – Great Britain, France and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] (known as the Great Powers) – took issue with the Empire's treatment of its Christian minorities and increasingly pressured the Ottoman government (also known as the [[Sublime Porte]]) to extend equal rights to all its citizens.

Beginning in 1839, the Ottoman government implemented the [[Tanzimat]] reforms to improve the situation of minorities, although these would prove largely ineffective. In 1856, the ''[[Hatt-ı Hümayun]]'' promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 [[Hatt-i Sharif|''Hatt-ı Şerif'' of Gülhane]]. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''[[Kanûn-ı Esâsî]]'' (meaning "[[Basic Law]]" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the [[Young Ottomans]], which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. "Firman of the Reforms" gave immense privileges to the Armenians, which formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the [[Aristocracy|aristocratic dominance]] of the Armenian [[nobles]] by development of the political strata in the society.<ref>[[Ilber Ortayli|Ortayli, Ilber]], ''Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Yerel Yönetim Gelenegi'', Istanbul 1985, pp. 73</ref>

====Armenian National Constitution, 1863====
((See also|Armenian National Assembly))

In 1863, the [[Armenian National Constitution]] (Ottoman Turkish:"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân") was [[Ottoman Empire]] approved. It was a form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", which defined the powers of [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] (a position in the Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Millet]]) and newly formed "[[Armenian National Assembly]]".<ref>[[Richard G. Hovannisian|Hovannisian, Richard]] "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" pg.198</ref> Mikrtich issued a decree permitting women to have equal votes with men and asking them to take part in all elections.

The Armenian National Assembly had wide-ranging functions. Muslim officials were not employed to collect taxes in Armenian villages, but the taxes in all the Armenian villages collected by Armenian tax-gatherers appointed by the Armenian National Assembly. Armenians were allowed to establish their own courts of justice for the purpose of administering justice and conducting litigation between Armenians, and for deciding all questions relating to marriage, divorce, estate, inheritance, etc., appertaining to themselves. Also Armenians were allowed the right to establish their own prisons for the incarceration of offending Armenians, and in no case should an Armenian be imprisoned in an Ottoman prison.

The Armenian National Assembly also had the power to elect the Armenian Governor by a local Armenian legislative council. The councils later will be part of elections during second constitutional era. Local Armenian legislative councils were composed of six Armenians elected by the Armenian National Assembly.

====Education and social work====
((main|Armenian education in the Ottoman Empire))
Beginning in 1863, education was available to all subjects, as far as funds permitted it. Such education was under the direction of lay committees. During this period in [[Russian Armenia]], the association of the schools with the Church was close, but the same principle obtains. This became a problem for the Russian administration, which peaked during 1897 when Tsar Nicholas appointed the Armenophobic Grigory Sergeyevich Golitsin as governor of Transcaucasia, and Armenian schools, cultural associations, newspapers and libraries were closed.

The Armenian charitable works, hospitals, and provident institutions were organized along the explained perspective. The Armenians, in addition to paying taxes to the State, voluntarily imposed extra burdens on themselves in order to support these philanthropic agencies. The taxes to the State did not have direct return to Armenians in such cases.

====Armenian Question, 1877====
((Main|Armenian question))
The [[Armenian Question]], as used in [[History of Europe|European history]], became common place among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the [[Congress of Berlin]] (1878); that in like [[Eastern Question]] (normally dated to 1774), refers to powers of Europe's involvement to the Armenian subjects of the [[Ottoman Empire]] beginning with the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78]]. However, in specific terms, the Armenian question refers to the protection and the freedoms of Armenians from their neighboring communities.<ref>''Armenian Studies: Études Arméniennes'' by Lebanese Association of Armenian University Graduates, pp. 4–6</ref> The "Armenian question" explains the forty years of Armenian-Ottoman history in the context of English, German, Russian politics between 1877 and 1914.
[[File:Armenian population in Eastern Anatolia (1896).JPG|thumb|Armenians in Western Armenia,1896]]

===National awakening, 1880s===
((See also|Armenian national awakening))
The national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples (see: [[History of the Balkans#National Awakening in the Balkans|national awakenings in Balkans]]) and the immediate involvement of the European powers in the Eastern question had a powerful effect on the hitherto suppressed national movement among the Armenians of the Ottoman Empire – on the development of a national liberation ideology.<ref>Kirakossian, Arman J. ''British Diplomacy and the Armenian Question: From the 1830s to 1914'', page 58</ref> The [[Armenian national liberation movement]] was the [[Armenian nationalism|Armenian national]] effort to free the historic Armenian homeland of eastern [[Asia Minor]] and [[Transcaucasus]] from Russian and Ottoman rule and re-establish the independent [[Armenia|Armenian state]]. Those Armenians who did not support national liberation aspirations or who were neutral were called ''chezoks''.

===Sultan Abdul Hamid II, 1876–1909===
[[File:Armenian population map 1896.jpg|thumb|1896, Armenian-populated regions.]]
[[Abdul Hamid II]] was the 34th Sultan and oversaw a period of [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|decline in the power and extent of the Empire]], ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was the last Ottoman Sultan to rule with absolute power.

====Bashkaleh clash, 1889====
((Main|1889 Bashkale clash))
The Bashkaleh clash was the bloody encounter between the [[Armenakan Party]] and the Ottoman Empire in May 1889. Its name comes from [[Başkale]], a border town of [[Van Eyalet]] of the Ottoman Empire. The event was important, as it was reflected in main Armenian newspapers as the recovered documents on the Armenakans showed an extensive plot for a national movement.<ref>Ter-Minasian, Ruben. ''Hai Heghapokhakani Me Hishataknere'' [Memoirs of an Armenian Revolutionary] (Los Angeles, 1952), II, 268–269.</ref> Ottoman officials believed that the men were members of a large revolutionary apparatus and the discussion was reflected on newspapers, (Eastern Express, Oriental Advertiser, Saadet, and Tarik) and the responses were on the Armenian papers. In some Armenian circles, this event was considered as a martyrdom and brought other armed conflicts.<ref>Darbinian, op. cit., p. 123; Adjemian, op. cit., p. 7; Varandian, Dashnaktsuthian Patmuthiun, I, 30; Great Britain, Turkey No. 1 (1889), op. cit., Inclosure in no. 95. Extract from the "Eastern Express" of 25 June 1889, pp. 83–84; ibid., no. 102. Sir W. White to the Marquis of Salisbury-(Received 15 July), p. 89; Great Britain, Turkey No. 1 (1890), op. cit., no. 4. Sir W. White to the Marquis of Salisbury-(Received 9 August), p. 4; ibid., Inclosure 1 in no. 4, Colonel Chermside to Sir W. White, p. 4; ibid., Inclosure 2 in no. 4. Vice-Consul Devey to Colonel Chermside, pp. 4–7; ibid., Inclosure 3 in no. 4. M. Patiguian to M. Koulaksizian, pp. 7–9; ibid., Inclosure 4 in no.</ref> The Bashkaleh Resistance was on the Persian border, which the Armenakans were in communication with [[Armenians in the Persian Empire]]. The [[Gugunian Expedition]], which followed within the couple months, was an attempt by a small group of Armenian nationalists from the [[Russian Armenia]] to launch an armed expedition across the border into the Ottoman Empire in 1890 in support of local Armenians.

====Kum Kapu demonstration, 1890====
The [[Kum Kapu demonstration]] occurred at the Armenian quarter of Kum Kapu, the seat of the Armenian Patriarch, was spared through the prompt action of the commandant, Hassan Aga.<ref name="kum">Creasy, Edward Shepherd. ''Turkey'', pg.500.</ref> On 27 July 1890, [[Harutiun Jangülian]], [[Mihran Damadian]] and [[Hambartsum Boyajian]] interrupted the Armenian mass to read a [[manifesto]] and denounce the indifference of the [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople|Armenian patriarch]] and [[Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)|Armenian National Assembly]]. Harutiun Jangülian (member from [[Van, Turkey|Van]]) tried to assassinate the Patriarch of Istanbul. The goal was to persuade the Armenian clerics to bring their policies into alignment with the national politics. They soon forced the patriarch to join the procession heading to the [[Yildiz Palace]] to demand implementation of Article 61 of the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]]. It is significant that this massacre, in which 6000 Armenians are said to have perished, was not the result of a general rising of the Muslim population.<ref name="kum"/> The Softas took no part in it, and many Armenians found refuge in the Muslim sections of the city.<ref name="kum"/>

====Bloody years, 1894–96====
((See also|Hamidian massacres|1894 Sasun rebellion|Zeitun rebellion (1895–96)|Occupation of the Ottoman Bank|Defense of Van (1896)|Khanasor Expedition))
[[File:Карта распределения армянского населения в Турецкой Армении и Курдистане с пояснительною запискою, 1895.jpg|thumb]]
The first notable battle in the Armenian resistance movement took place in [[Sason|Sassoun]], where nationalist ideals were proliferated by [[Hunchak]] activists, such as [[Mihran Damadian]] and [[Hampartsoum Boyadjian]]. The [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] also played a significant role in arming the people of the region. The Armenians of Sassoun confronted the Ottoman army and [[Hamidieh soldier|Kurdish irregulars]] at Sassoun, succumbing to superior numbers.<ref name="Hayots p.42-44">((cite book |last=Kurdoghlian |first=Mihran |title=Hayots Badmoutioun, Volume III |publisher=Hradaragoutioun Azkayin Ousoumnagan Khorhourti |year=1996 |location=Athens, Greece |pages=42–44|language=hy))</ref> This was followed by [[Zeitun Rebellion (1895–96)]], which took place between 1891 and 1895, Hunchak activists toured various regions of [[Cilicia]] and [[Süleymanlı|Zeitun]] to encourage resistance, and established new branches of the [[Social Democrat Hunchakian Party]].

The [[1896 Ottoman Bank takeover]] was perpetrated by an Armenian group armed with [[pistols]], [[grenades]], [[dynamite]] and hand-held bombs against the [[Ottoman Bank]] in [[Istanbul]]. The seizure of the bank lasted 14 hours, resulting in the deaths of 10 of the Armenian men and Ottoman soldiers. The Ottoman reaction to takeover saw further massacres and pogroms of the several thousand Armenians living in Constantinople and Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] threatening to level the entire building itself. However, intervention on part of the European diplomats in the city managed to persuade the men to give, assigning safe passage to the survivors to France. Despite the level of violence the incident had wrought, the takeover was reported positively in the European press, praising the men for their courage and the objectives they attempted to accomplish.<ref>[[Peter Balakian|Balakian, Peter]]. ''The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response''. New York: Perennial, 2003. pp. 107–108</ref> The years between 1894 and 1896 ended, with estimates of the dead ranging from 80,000 to 300,000.<ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akcam, Taner]]. ''[[A Shameful Act]]''. 2006, pg.42.</ref> The [[Hamidian massacres]] are named for Sultan Abdul Hamid II, whose efforts to reinforce the territorial integrity of the embattled Ottoman Empire resulted in the massacres.

====Sasun Uprising, 1904====
((Main|1904 Sasun uprising))
Ottoman officials involved in the [[1904 Sasun uprising|Sasun uprising]], who were previously defeated in the [[Zeitun Rebellion (1895–96)|First Zeitoun Rebellion]], did not want the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the [[Six vilayets|"Eastern" vilayets]]. In [[Sason|Sasun]], Armenian activists were working to arm the folk and to recruit young men by motivating them to the Armenian cause. 50,000 Turkish and Kurdish troops started the offensive in Sasun, where 500 fedayees had to defend 20,000 unarmed people. The Armenians were headed by [[Andranik Ozanian]] along with [[Kevork Chavoush]], [[Sepasdatsi Mourad]], [[Keri]], [[Hrayr Tjokhk]], and others.<ref name="Hayots p.47">((cite book |last=Kurdoghlian |first=Mihran |title=Hayots Badmoutioun, Volume III |publisher=Hradaragoutioun Azkayin Ousoumnagan Khorhourti |year=1996 |location=Athens, Greece |pages=47|language=hy))</ref>

====Assassination attempt on Sultan Abdul Hamid II, 1905====
((Main|Yıldız assassination attempt))
The events of the [[Hamidian massacres]] and Sultan Abdul Hamid II's continued [[Anti-Armenianism|anti-Armenian]] policies<ref>Kirakosian, Arman Dzhonovich. ''The Armenian Massacres, 1894–1896: 1894–1896 : U.S. media testimony'', Page 33.</ref> gave way for the Armenian Revolutionary Federation to plan an assassination attempt on the sultan to enact vengeance. Dashnak members, led by ARF founder [[Christapor Mikaelian]], secretly started producing explosives and planning the operation in [[Sofia]], Bulgaria. The [[Yıldız assassination attempt|assassination attempt]] was unsuccessful in killing Abdul Hamid II, although it resulted in the death of 26 people and a further 58 wounded.

===Dissolution, 1908–18===
((See also|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire))
[[File:Turkey in Asia, 1903.jpg|thumb|left|6 Armenian provinces of [[Western Armenia]]. Patten, William and J.E. Homas, Turkey in Asia, 1903.]]
[[File:Declaration of the 1908 Revolution in Ottoman Empire.png|thumb|200px|Declaration of the [[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|Constitution]] Muslim, Armenian, Greek leaders together]][[File:Turkisharmenia.jpg|thumb]]The [[Second Constitutional Era]] of the Empire began shortly after Sultan [[Abdülhamid II]] restored the [[constitutional monarchy]] after the 1908 [[Young Turk Revolution]]. The period established many [[list of parties in the Ottoman Empire|political groups]]. A series of elections during this period resulted in the gradual ascendance of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]]'s ("CUP") domination in politics. This period also marked the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]].

====Young Turk Revolution, 1908====
((Main|Young Turk Revolution|Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)))
[[File:Pastermajian-Karekin.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Karekin Pastermadjian]] member of "[[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|Chamber of Deputies]]" representative of the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] from [[Erzurum]]. He was later elected to be ambassador of [[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenia]] to the United States.]]
On 24 July 1908, Armenians' hopes for equality in the empire brightened with the removal of Hamid II from power and restored the country back to a constitutional monarchy. Two of the largest revolutionary groups trying to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II had been the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] and the [[Committee of Union and Progress]], a group of mostly European-educated Turks.<ref name="Dashnaktsutiun and Committee of Union and Progress">((cite book |first=Aykut |last=Kansu |title=The Revolution of 1908 in Turkey |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |pages=78 |year=1997 |isbn= 90-04-10283-3 ))</ref> In a general assembly meeting in 1907, the ARF acknowledged that the Armenian and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] revolutionaries had the same goals. Although the [[Tanzimat]] reforms had given Armenians more rights and seats in the parliament, the ARF hoped to gain autonomy to govern Armenian populated areas of the Ottoman Empire as a "state within a state". The "Second congress of the Ottoman opposition" took place in Paris, France, in 1907. Opposition leaders including [[Ahmed Riza]] (liberal), [[Sabahheddin Bey]], and ARF member [[Khachatur Maloumian]] attended. During the meeting, an alliance between the two parties was officially declared.<ref name="Dashnaktsutiun and Committee of Union and Progress" /><ref name="ARF and Young Turks">((cite book |first=Mihran |last=Kurdoghlian |title=Hayots Badmoutioun (Armenian History) |publisher=Hradaragutiun Azkayin Oosoomnagan Khorhoortee|location= Athens, Greece |pages=52–53 |year=1996 |language=hy))</ref> The ARF decided to cooperate with the Committee of Union and Progress, hoping that if the Young Turks came to power, autonomy would be granted to the Armenians.

==== Balkan Wars ====
[[Andranik|Andranik Ozanian]] participated in the [[Balkan Wars]] of 1912–1913 alongside general [[Garegin Nzhdeh]] as a commander of Armenian auxiliary troops. Andranik met revolutionist [[Boris Sarafov]] and the two pledged to work jointly for the oppressed peoples of Armenia and Macedonia. Andranik participated in the [[First Balkan War]] alongside Nzhdeh as a Chief Commander of 12th&nbsp;Battalion of [[Kırklareli|Lozengrad]] Third Brigade of the [[Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps|Macedonian-Adrianopolitan militia]] under the command of Colonel [[Aleksandar Protogerov]]. His detachment consisted of 273 Armenian volunteers. On 5 May 1912, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation officially severed the relations with the Ottoman government; a public declaration of the Western Bureau printed in the official announcement was directed to "Ottoman Citizens". The June issue of [[Droshak]] ran an editorial about it.<ref name="Erickson2013">((cite book|last=Erickson|first=Edward|title=Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2013|isbn=978-1137362209))</ref>((rp|page=35)) There were overwhelming numbers of Armenians who served the Empire units with distinction during Balkan wars.

====Armenian reform package, 1914====
[[File:Proportions des populations en Asie Mineure statistique officielle d1914.png|thumb|200px|The [[Armenian reform package]] declared that the vilayets which Armenians living were to be under an inspectors general, (the map is an archive document of 1914 population statistics).<ref>Kirakosian, J. S., ed. Hayastane michazkayin divanakitut'yan ew sovetakan artakin kaghakakanut'yan pastateghterum, 1828–1923 (Armenia in the documents of international diplomacy and Soviet foreign policy, 1828–1923). Erevan, 1972. p.149-358</ref>]]
The [[Armenian reform package]] was an arrangement negotiated with Russia, acting on behalf of the Great Powers, and the Ottoman Empire. It aimed to introduce reforms to the Armenian citizens of the empire. This agreement, which was solidified in February 1914 was based on the arrangements nominally made in 1878. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period.

==== Population ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Distribution of Ottoman Armenians and locales in 1914 according to Raymond Kévorkian<ref>((Cite book |last=Kévorkian |first=Raymond H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742353455 |title=The Armenian genocide : a complete history |date=2011 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-85771-930-0 |location=London |pages=272–278 |oclc=742353455))</ref>
!Vilayet
!Localities
!Armenians
!Churches
!Monasteries
!Schools
!Pupils
|-
|[[Constantinople vilayet|Constantinople]]
|49
|163,670
|53
|
|64
|
|-
|[[Thrace]]
|9
|30,316
|14
|
|15
|2,438
|-
|[[Sanjak of Ismet]]
|42
|61,675
|51
|
|53
|7,480
|-
|[[Hüdavendigâr vilayet|Hüdavendigâr]]
|58
|118,992
|54
|
|50
|6,699
|-
|[[Aidin Vilayet|Aidin]]
|16
|21,145
|26
|1
|27
|2,935
|-
|[[Konya vilayet|Konya]]
|15
|20,738
|14
|1
|26
|4,585
|-
|[[Kastamonu vilayet|Kastamonu]]
|18
|13,461
|17
|
|18
|2,500
|-
|[[Trebizond vilayet|Trebizond]]
|118
|73,395
|106
|31
|90
|9,254
|-
|[[Angora vilayet|Angora]]
|88
|135,869
|105
|11
|126
|21,298
|-
|[[Sivas vilayet|Sivas]]
|241
|204,472
|198
|21
|204
|20,599
|-
|[[Adana vilayet|Adana]]
|70
|119,414
|44
|5
|63
|5,834
|-
|[[Aleppo vilayet|Aleppo]]
|117
|189,565
|93
|16
|113
|8,451
|-
|[[Mamuret-ul-Aziz vilayet|Mamuret-ul-Aziz]]
|279
|124,289
|242
|65
|204
|15,632
|-
|[[Diyarbekir vilayet|Diyarbakir]]
|249
|106,867
|148
|10
|122
|9,660
|-
|[[Erzurum vilayet|Erzurum]]
|425
|202,391
|406
|76
|322
|21,348
|-
|[[Bitlis vilayet|Bitlis]]
|681
|218,404
|510
|161
|207
|9,309
|-
|[[Van vilayet|Van]]
|450
|110,897
|457
|80
|192
|
|-
!TOTAL
!2,925
!1,914,620
!2,538
!451
!1,996
!173,022
|}

====World War I, 1914–18====
((main|Armenian genocide))
[[File:Armenia between russian and ottoman empires.png|thumb|left|Six Armenian provinces of [[Western Armenia]] and boundaries between countries before [[World War I]]]]
During World War I, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Russian Empire]] engaged each other in [[Caucasus Campaign|Caucasus]] and [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian Campaign]]s, and the [[Committee of Union and Progress|CUP]] began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion. This was due to the fact that the Russian army contained a contingent of [[Armenian volunteer units|Armenian volunteers]]. On 24 April 1915, [[Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915|Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities]] and, with the [[Tehcir Law]] (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in [[Western Armenia]] perished in what has become known as the [[Armenian genocide]]. There was local [[Armenian resistance]] in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians, Western historians, and even some Turkish writers and historians like [[Taner Akçam]] and [[Orhan Pamuk]], to have been state-sponsored and planned mass killings, or [[Armenian genocide|genocide]].

==See also==
* [[History of Armenia]]
* [[Timeline of Armenian history]]
* [[Armenians in Turkey]]
* [[Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey]]
* [[Ottoman Armenian population]]
* [[Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople]]
* [[Armenian Sport in the Ottoman Empire]]

==References==
((Reflist|2))

==Further reading==
* ((Cite book|last=Frazee|first=Charles A.|title=Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923|year=2006|orig-year=1983|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521027007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC))
* ((Cite book|last=Stopka|first=Krzysztof|title=Armenia Christiana: Armenian Religious Identity and the Churches of Constantinople and Rome (4th-15th century)|year=2016|location=Kraków|publisher=Jagiellonian University Press|isbn=9788323395553|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeq-DQAAQBAJ))

==External links==
*[http://www.mfa.gov.tr/armenians-in-ottoman-bureaucracy.en.mfa A list of Armenian Ministers, Members of Parliament, Ambassadors, General Directors and other High-level bureaucrats of the Ottoman Empire]

((Armenia topics))
((Armenian Genocide))
((Ottoman Empire topics))
((Modern states under the Ottoman Empire))

((DEFAULTSORT:Armenians In The Ottoman Empire))
[[Category:Christianity in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Armenians from the Ottoman Empire| ]]

[[de:Armenien#Armenier im Osmanischen Reich]]

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