The city was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th century until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983, Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO with the title "City of Cuzco". It has become a major tourist destination, hosting over 2 million visitors a year and providing passage to numerous Incan ruins, such as Machu Picchu, one of the Seven modern wonders of the world and others. The Constitution of Peru (1993) designates the city as the Historical Capital of Peru.[2] The city is often dubbed the ''Rome of America''.
Spelling and etymology
The indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Southern Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language. The word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka ('rock of the owl'), related to the city's foundation myth of the Ayar siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa (Ayar Auca) acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city; there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu ("lineage"):[3]
Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, and said he should be the one to stay at Guanacaure as an idol in order to speak with their father the Sun. Then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol, Ayar Oche raised up in flight toward the heavens so high that they could not see him. He returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name and go to the town that they had seen. After this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement...he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco. Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women, planted some land with maize. It is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because...they came out of that cave.[4]: 15–16
The Spanishconquistadors (Spanish soldiers) adopted the local name, transcribing it according to Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often, Cozco. Cuzco was the standard spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times,[5] though Cusco was also used. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been a close approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time.[6]
As both Spanish and Quechua pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of 'z' is no longer universally close to the Quechua pronunciation. In 1976, the city mayor signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new spelling, Cusco, in municipality publications. Nineteen years later, on 23 June 1990, the local authorities formalized a new spelling more closely related to Quechua, Qosqo, but later administrations have not followed suit.[7]
There is no international, official spelling of the city's name. In English-language publications both "s"[8][9] and "z"[10][11] can be found. The Oxford Dictionary of English and Merriam-Webster Dictionary prefer "Cuzco",[12][13] and in scholarly writings "Cuzco" is used more often than "Cusco".[14] The city's international airport code is CUZ, reflecting the earlier Spanish spelling.
Sacsayhuamán is an Inca ceremonial fortress located two kilometers north from Cusco: the greatest architectural work by the Incas during their apogee.
Killke culture
The Killke people occupied the region from 900 to 1200 CE, prior to the arrival of the Inca in the 13th century. Carbon-14 dating of Saksaywaman, the walled complex outside Cusco, established that Killke constructed the fortress about 1100 CE. The Inca later expanded and occupied the complex in the 13th century. In March 2008, archeologists discovered the ruins of an ancient temple, roadway and aqueduct system at Saksaywaman.[15] The temple covers some 2,700 square feet (250 square meters) and contains 11 rooms thought to have held idols and mummies,[15] establishing its religious purpose. Together with the results of excavations in 2007, when another temple was found at the edge of the fortress, this indicates a longtime religious as well as military use of the facility.[16]
Digital recreation of the original interior of the Qurikancha (The main Temple of the Sun of the Inca Empire) according to the description of Garcilaso de la Vega; and the current Qoricancha's wall remains below the Convento de Santo Domingo
Cusco was long an important center of indigenous people. It was the capital of the Inca Empire (13th century – 1532). Many believe that the city was planned as an effigy in the shape of a puma, a sacred animal.[17] How Cusco was specifically built, or how its large stones were quarried and transported to the site remain undetermined. Under the Inca, the city had two sectors: the hurin and hanan. Each was divided to encompass two of the four provinces, Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). A road led from each quarter to the corresponding quarter of the empire.
Each local leader was required to build a house in the city and live part of the year in Cusco, restricted to the quarter that corresponded to the quarter in which he held territory. After the rule of Pachacuti, when an Inca died, his title went to one son and his property was given to a corporation controlled by his other relatives (split inheritance). Each title holder had to build a new house and add new lands to the empire in order to own land for his family to keep after his death.
According to Inca legend, the city was rebuilt by Sapa IncaPachacuti, the man who transformed the Kingdom of Cuzco from a sleepy city-state into the vast empire of Tawantinsuyu.[18]: 66–69 Archeological evidence, however, points to a slower, more organic growth of the city beginning before Pachacuti. The city was constructed according to a definite plan in which two rivers were channeled around the city. Archeologists have suggested that this city plan was replicated at other sites.
The city fell to the sphere of Huáscar during the Inca Civil War after the death of Huayna Capac in 1528. It was captured by the generals of Atahualpa in April 1532 in the Battle of Quipaipan. Nineteen months later, Spanish explorers invaded the city after kidnapping and murdering Atahualpa (see Battle of Cuzco), and gained control.
The first image of Cusco in Europe. Pedro Cieza de León. Crónica del Perú, 1553.
The first three Spaniards arrived in the city in May 1533, after the Battle of Cajamarca, collecting for Atahualpa's Ransom Room. On 15 November 1533 Francisco Pizarro officially arrived in Cusco. "The capital of the Incas ... astonished the Spaniards by the beauty of its edifices, the length and regularity of its streets." The great square was surrounded by several palaces, since "each sovereign built a new palace for himself." "The delicacy of the stone work excelled" that of the Spaniards'. The fortress had three parapets and was composed of "heavy masses of rock". "Through the heart of the capital ran a river ... faced with stone. ... The most sumptuous edifice in Cuzco ... was undoubtedly the great temple dedicated to the Sun ... studded with gold plates ... surrounded by convents and dormitories for the priests. ... The palaces were numerous and the troops lost no time in plundering them of their contents, as well as despoiling the religious edifices," including the royal mummies in the Coricancha.[19]: 186–187, 192–193, 216–219
Pizarro ceremoniously gave Manco Inca the Incan fringe as the new Peruvian leader.[19]: 221 Pizarro encouraged some of his men to stay and settle in the city, giving out repartimientos, or land grants to do so.[20]: 46 Alcaldes were established and regidores on 24 March 1534, which included the brothers Gonzalo Pizarro and Juan Pizarro. Pizarro left a garrison of 90 men and departed for Jauja with Manco Inca.[19]: 222, 227
Map showing the city of Cusco during the Inca Empire. Painting of 1565 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio.[21][22][23]View of Hatun Rumiyuq Street. Many of the colonial constructions used the city's Inca constructions as a base.[24]
Pizarro renamed it as the "very noble and great city of Cuzco". Buildings often constructed after the Spanish invasion have a mixture of Spanish influence and Inca indigenous architecture, including the Santa Clara and San Blas neighborhoods. The Spanish destroyed many Inca buildings, temples and palaces. They used the remaining walls as bases for the construction of a new city, and this stone masonry is still visible.
Father Vincente de Valverde became the Bishop of Cusco and built his cathedral facing the plaza. He supported construction of the Dominican Order monastery (Santo Domingo Convent) on the ruins of the Corichanca, House of the Sun, and a convent at the former site of the House of the Virgins of the Sun.[19]: 222
During the Siege of Cuzco of 1536 by Manco Inca Yupanqui, a leader of the Sapa Inca, he took control of the city from the Spanish. Although the siege lasted 10 months, it was ultimately unsuccessful. Manco's forces were able to reclaim the city for only a few days. He eventually retreated to Vilcabamba, the capital of the newly established small Neo-Inca State. There his state survived another 36 years but he was never able to return to Cuzco. Throughout the conflict and years of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, many Incas died of smallpox epidemics, as they had no acquired immunity to a disease by then endemic among Europeans.
Cusco was built on layers of cultures. The Tawantinsuyu (former Inca Empire) was built on Killke structures. The Spanish replaced indigenous temples with Catholic churches, and Inca palaces with mansions for the invaders.
Cusco was the center for the Spanish colonization and spread of Christianity in the Andean world. It became very prosperous thanks to agriculture, cattle raising and mining, as well as its trade with Spain. The Spanish colonists constructed many churches and convents, as well as a cathedral, university and archdiocese.
View in the Plaza del Cabildo, Cuzco in 1877 by Ephraim George Squier[25]Panoramic view of Cusco in 1897, showing the city, surrounding farmland, and mountains. "CUZCO" is written on the ground.
Present
A major earthquake on 21 May hit in 1950, and caused damage in more than one third of the city's structures. The Dominican Priory and Church of Santo Domingo, which were built on top of the impressive Qurikancha (Temple of the Sun), were among the affected colonial era buildings. Inca architecture withstood the earthquake. Many of the old Inca walls were at first thought to have been lost after the earthquake, but the granite retaining walls of the Qurikancha were exposed, as well as those of other ancient structures throughout the city. Restoration work at the Santo Domingo complex exposed the Inca masonry formerly obscured by the superstructure without compromising the integrity of the colonial heritage.[26] Many of the buildings damaged in 1950 had been impacted by an earthquake only nine years previously.[27]
In the 1990s, during the mayoral administration of Mayor Daniel Estrada Pérez, the city underwent a new process of beautification through the restoration of monuments and the construction of plazas, fountains and monuments. Likewise, thanks to the efforts of this authority, various recognitions were achieved, such as the declaration as "Historical Capital of Peru" contained in the text of the Political Constitution of Peru of 1993. It was also decided to change the coat of arms of Cusco, leaving aside the colonial coat of arms and adopting the "Sol de Echenique" as the new coat of arms. Additionally, the change of the official name of the city was proposed to adopt the Quechua word Qosqo, but this change was reversed a few years later. Currently, Cusco is the most important tourist destination in Peru. Under the administration of mayor Daniel Estrada Pérez, a staunch supporter of the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua, between 1983 and 1995 the Quechua name Qosqo was officially adopted for the city. Tourism in the city was drastically affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru and the 2022–2023 Peruvian protests, with the latter event costing the area 10 million soles daily.[28]
Honors
In 1933, the Congress of Americanists met in La Plata, Argentina, and declared the city as the Archeological Capital of the Americas.
In 1978, the 7th Convention of Mayors of Great World Cities met in Milan, Italy, and declared Cusco a Cultural Heritage of the World.
Cusco extends throughout the Huatanay (or Watanay) river valley. Located on the eastern end of the Knot of Cusco[citation needed], its elevation is around 3,400 m (11,200 ft). To its north is the Vilcabamba mountain range with 4,000–6,000-meter-high (13,000–20,000-foot) mountains. The highest peak is Salcantay (6,271 meters or 20,574 feet) about 60 kilometers (37 miles) northwest of Cusco.[31]
Climate
Cusco has a subtropical highland climate (KöppenCwb). It is generally dry and temperate, with two defined seasons. Winter occurs from April through September, with abundant sunshine and occasional nighttime freezes; July is the coldest month with an average of 9.7 °C (49.5 °F). Summer occurs from October through March, with warm temperatures and abundant rainfall; November is the warmest month, averaging 13.3 °C (55.9 °F). Although frost and hail are common, the last reported snowfall was in June 1911. Temperatures usually range from 0.2 to 20.9 °C (32.4 to 69.6 °F), but the all-time temperature range is between −8.9 and 30 °C (16.0 and 86.0 °F). Sunshine hours peak in July, the equivalent of January in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, February, the equivalent of August in the Northern Hemisphere, has the least sunshine.
In 2006, Cusco was found to be the spot on Earth with the highest average ultraviolet light level.[32]
Source 1: NOAA,[33] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[34]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (mean temperatures 1961–1990, precipitation days 1970–1990 and humidity 1954–1993)[35] Danish Meteorological Institute (sun 1931–1960)[36]
Climate data for Cusco (Granja Kayra) (elevation 3,214 m (10,545 ft), 1991–2020 normals)
Source: National Meteorology and Hydrology Service of Peru[37]
Government
Throughout its history, Cusco has had a marked political importance. During the Inca period, it was the main political center of the region from which the Inca Empire was ruled and where the political and religious elite lived. After its Spanish foundation, it lost prominence due to Francisco Pizarro's decision to establish the capital of the new territories in the city of Lima because it had close access to the sea and communication with the metropolis. However, Cusco continued to be an important city within the viceregal political scheme to the point of being the first city in the entire Viceroyalty to have a bishop.Its participation in the trade routes during the viceroyalty guaranteed its political importanceIt remained the capital of the corregimiento established in these territories and, later, of the Intendancy of Cusco and, towards the end of the viceroyalty, of the Royal Audience of Cusco.
During the republic, Cusco's political role languished due to its isolation from the capital, coastline, and trade routes of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, it maintained its status as the main city in southern Peru, although subordinated to the importance that Arequipa was gaining, better connected with the rest of the country. Cusco has always remained the capital of the department of Cusco
Politically, according to the results of elections held in the second half of the 20th century, Cusco has been a stronghold of leftist parties in Peru. In the 1970s and 1980s, the socialist leader Daniel Estrada Pérez brought together this political tendency under the banner of the United Left alliance. Since his death, Cusco has been a major city for parties such as the Peruvian Nationalist Party and the Broad Front for Justice, Life and Liberty, as well as regional movements. Traditional Peruvian parties, such as the Peruvian Aprista Party and Acción Popular, have recorded eventual electoral victories, while those that represent a right-wing political position, such as the Popular Christian Party and Fujimorism itself, have had little presence among the elected authorities.
Demographics
The city had a population of about 434,114 people in 2013 and 434,654 people in 2015 according to INEI.
Financial Center of the City, Av. de la Cultura, Cusco
Economic activity in Cuzco includes agriculture, especially maize and native tubers. The local industry is related to extractive activities and to food and beverage products, such as beer, carbonated waters, coffee, chocolates, among others. However, the relevant economic activity of its inhabitants is the reception of tourism, with increasingly better infrastructure and services. It is the second city in this country that has and maintains full employment.
Tourism
Tourism has been the backbone to the Cusco economy since the early 2000s, bringing in more than 1.2 million tourists per year.[40] In 2019, Cusco was the region that reached the highest number of tourists in Peru with more than 2.7 million tourists.[41] In 2002, the income Cusco received from tourism was US$837 million. In 2009, that number increased to US$2.47 billion. [citation needed] Most tourists visiting the city are there to tour thew city and the Incan Ruins, especially the top destination, Machu Picchu, which is one of the Seven Modern Wonders of the World.
Due to its antiquity and significance, the center of the city preserves many buildings, squares and streets from pre-Columbian times as well as colonial constructions. That is why the city was declared in 1972 as "Cultural Heritage of the Nation" by Supreme Resolution No. 2900-72-ED.In 1983, during the VII session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, it was decided to declare this area as a World Heritage Site by establishing a central zone that constitutes the World Heritage Site proper and a buffer zone.
One of the characteristics that the Incas achieved with their urban plan in Cusco was the respect for the geographical matrix when building their fabric, since they responded with different design strategies to the rugged topography of the Andean area at 3399 meters above sea level
Language
The native language is Quechua, although the city's inhabitants mostly speak Spanish. The Quechua people are the last living descendants of the Inca Empire.
Mercedarian Friars in the Corpus Christi procession at the Main Square of Cusco. 17th century. Cusco Colonial Painting School. Painting currently located at the Archbishop's Palace of Cusco.
As capital to the Inca Empire, Cusco was an important agricultural region. It was a natural reserve for thousands of native Peruvian species, including around 3,000 varieties of potato cultivated by the people.[45] Fusion and neo-Andean restaurants developed in Cusco, in which the cuisine is prepared with modern techniques and incorporates a blend of traditional Andean and international ingredients.[46] Cuy, guinea pig, a native animal in Cusco, is a popular dish in the city.
Cuy
Music
Folkloric institution established in 1924. It is considered to be the most important folkloric institution in the cityand was recognized by the Peruvian government as the country's first folkloric institutionand by the regional government as Living Cultural Heritage of the Cusco region.
The indigenousKillke culture built the walled complex of Sacsayhuamán about 1100. The Killke built a major temple near Saksaywaman, as well as an aqueduct (Pukyus) and roadway connecting prehistoric structures. Sacsayhuamán was expanded by the Inca.
Women in traditional dress with llamas at the Sacsayhuaman ruins on the outskirts of Cusco.Templo de la Sagrada Familia
The Spanish explorer Pizarro sacked much of the Inca city in 1535. Remains of the palace of the Incas, Qurikancha (the Temple of the Sun), and the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun still stand. Inca buildings and foundations in some cases proved to be stronger during earthquakes than foundations built in present-day Peru. Among the most noteworthy Spanish colonial buildings of the city is the Cathedral of Santo Domingo.
The surrounding area, located in the Watanay Valley, is strong in gold mining and agriculture, including corn, barley, quinoa, tea and coffee.
Cusco's main stadium Estadio Garcilaso de la Vega was one of seven stadiums used when Peru hosted South America's continental soccer championship, the Copa América, in 2004. The stadium is home to one of the country's most successful soccer clubs, Cienciano.
Because of its antiquity and importance, the city center retains many buildings, plazas, streets and churches from colonial times, and even some pre-Columbian structures, which led to its declaration as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983. Among the main sights of the city are:
Barrio de San Blas
This neighborhood houses artisans, workshops and craft shops. It is one of the most picturesque sites in the city. Its streets are steep and narrow with old houses built by the Spanish over important Inca foundations. It has an attractive square and the oldest parish church in Cusco, built in 1563, which has a carved wooden pulpit considered the epitome of Colonial era woodwork in Cusco.
The Quechua name of this neighborhood is Tuq'ukachi, which means the opening of the salt.
Hatun Rumiyuq
This street is the most visited by tourists. On the street Hatun Rumiyoq ("the one with the big stone") was the palace of Inca Roca, which was converted to the Archbishop's residence.
Along this street that runs from the Plaza de Armas to the Barrio de San Blas, one can see the Stone of Twelve Angles, which is viewed as a marvel of ancient stonework and has become emblematic of the city's history.
The first cathedral built in Cusco is the Iglesia del Triunfo, built in 1539 on the foundations of the Palace of Viracocha Inca. Today, this church is an auxiliary chapel of the cathedral.
The main basilica cathedral of the city was built between 1560 and 1664. The main material used was stone, which was extracted from nearby quarries, although some blocks of red granite were taken from the fortress of Saksaywaman.
This great cathedral presents late-Gothic, Baroque and plateresque interiors and has one of the most outstanding examples of colonial goldwork. Its carved wooden altars are also important.
The city developed a distinctive style of painting known as the "Cuzco School" and the cathedral houses a major collection of local artists of the time. The cathedral is known for a Cusco School painting of the Last Supper depicting Jesus and the twelve apostles feasting on guinea pig, a traditional Andean delicacy.
Known as the "Square of the warrior" in the Inca era, this plaza has been the scene of several important events, such as the proclamation by Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Cuzco.
Similarly, the Plaza de Armas was the scene of the death of Túpac Amaru II, considered the indigenous leader of the resistance.
The Spanish built stone arcades around the plaza which endure to this day. The main cathedral and the Church of La Compañía both open directly onto the plaza.
The cast iron fountain in Plaza de Armas was manufactured by Janes, Beebe & Co.
This church (Church of the Society of Jesus), whose construction was initiated by the Jesuits in 1576 on the foundations of the Amarucancha or the palace of the Inca ruler Wayna Qhapaq, is considered one of the best examples of colonial baroque style in the Americas.
Its façade is carved in stone and its main altar is made of carved wood covered with gold leaf. It was built over an underground chapel and has a valuable collection of colonial paintings of the Cusco School.
The Qurikancha ("golden place") was the most important sanctuary dedicated to the Sun God (Inti) at the time of the Inca Empire. According to ancient chronicles written by Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler), Qurikancha was said to have featured a large solid golden disc that was studded with precious stones and represented the Inca Sun God – Inti. Spanish chroniclers describe the Sacred Garden in front of the temple as a garden of golden plants with leaves of beaten gold, stems of silver, solid gold corn-cobs and 20 life-size llamas and their herders all in solid gold.[48]
The temple was destroyed by its Spanish invaders who, as they plundered, were determined to rid the city of its wealth, idolaters and shrines. Nowadays, only a curved outer wall and partial ruins of the inner temple remain at the site.
With this structure as a foundation, colonists built the Convent of Santo Domingo in the Renaissance style. The building, with one baroque tower, exceeds the height of many other buildings in this city.
Inside is a large collection of paintings from the Cuzco School.
Transport
Air
Cusco's main international airport is Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport, which provides service to 5 domestic destinations and 3 international ones. It is named in honor of Peruvian pilot Alejandro Velasco Astete who was the first person to fly across the Andes in 1925 when he made the first flight from Lima to Cusco. The airport is the second busiest in Peru after Lima's Jorge Chávez International Airport. It will soon be replaced by Chinchero International Airport. which will provide access to North American and Europe.
Rail
Cusco is connected by rail to the cities of Juliaca and Arequipa through the Southern Section of the Southern Railway, whose terminus in the city is the Wánchaq station. Additionally, from the San Pedro station, the South East Section of the Southern Railroad (formerCusco-Santa Ana-Quillabamba Railway) departs from the city, which is the route to the ancient Inca citadel of Machu Picchu.
Road
By road, it is connected to the cities of Puerto Maldonado, Arequipa, Abancay, Juliaca and Puno. The road that connects it with the city of Abancay is also the fastest to reach Lima after a journey of more than 20 hours crossing the departments of Apurímac, Ayacucho, Ica and Lima. PeruRail is the largest Peruvian railway company and provides service to stations in Cusco.
^de Gamboa, P. S., 2015, History of the Incas, Lexington, ISBN9781463688653
^ abcdPrescott, W. H. (2011). The History of the Conquest of Peru. Digireads.com Publishing, ISBN9781420941142
^Pizzaro, P. (1571). Relation of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru, Vol. 1–2. New York: Cortes Society, RareBooksClub.com, ISBN9781235937859
^"Klimatafel von Cuzco, Prov. Cuzco / Peru"(PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. "Peru – Cuzco"(PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931–1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 209. Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 April 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
^"Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico"(PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 16. Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
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