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((short description|Lasting state of war with no clear ending conditions))
((redirect|Forever war|the novel|The Forever War|5=The Forever War (disambiguation)))
((Multiple issues|
((Original research|date=November 2013))
((more citations needed|date=April 2008))
))
((War))
'''Perpetual war''', '''endless war''', or a '''forever war''', is a lasting state of [[war]] with no clear conditions that would lead to its conclusion. These wars are usually situations of ongoing tension that may escalate at any moment, similar to the [[Cold War]]. From the late 20th century, the concepts have been used to critique the [[United States Armed Forces]] interventions in foreign nations and the [[military–industrial complex]] such as the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet-Afghan War]], or wars with ambiguous enemies such as the [[war on terror]] or [[war on drugs]].

== Causes ==
Poor military planning is one of the major reasons that a forever war can occur. If the territory gained in a war is not occupied or controlled properly, this can allow a deadly insurgency to occur, potentially stretching out a conflict that never ends.<ref name=":0">((Cite journal|last=Manchanda|first=Amav|date=Winter 2008|title=THE FOREVER WAR/TELL ME HOW THIS ENDS: General David Petraeus and the Search for a Way Out of Iraq|journal=International Journal|volume=1|pages=296–298))</ref> Similarly, warfare that is fought irregularly, such as [[rebellion]]s in Africa, do not have a set of military objectives in mind, usually because these rebel groups intend to commit war crimes against the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur.  A very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war.<ref name=":2">((Cite journal|last=Spinney|first=Franklin|date=Fall 2011|title=The Domestic Roots of Perpetual War|journal=Challenge|volume=54|pages=54–69|doi=10.2753/0577-5132540103|s2cid=154862800))</ref> ((as of|2018)), the United States has an inflation-adjusted military budget that is greater than its budget for [[World War II]], which enables it to fight continuously in Iraq and other countries.<ref name=":2" />

[[Civil war]]s are prone to military [[stalemate]] which can prolong the war indefinitely.<ref name=":3">((Cite journal|last=Fearon|first=James D.|title=Why Do Some Civil Wars Last So Much Longer than Others?|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=41|issue=3|pages=275–301|doi=10.1177/0022343304043770|year=2004|citeseerx=10.1.1.19.3818|s2cid=7158376))</ref> A lack of [[democracy]] is associated with an increased risk of civil war.<ref name=":3" />

Forever wars can occur in order to keep money flowing into institutions, such as the [[Military–industrial complex|military–industrial–congressional complex]] (MICC).<ref name=":2" /> Thus, forever wars can serve as domestic political engines, as policy makers promote policies of continuing and expanding wars.<ref name=":4">((Cite journal|last=Aravamudan|first=Srinivas|date=2009|title=Introduction: Perpetual War|jstor=25614381|journal=PMLA|volume=124|issue=5|pages=1505–1514|doi=10.1632/pmla.2009.124.5.1505|s2cid=154411632|doi-access=free))</ref>

Forever wars can be to the benefit of small armed groups, who may achieve political goals by wearing down a larger group or country. For example, in the aftermath of the [[September 11 attacks|9/11 attacks]] and the beginning of the [[war on terror]], [[Al-Qaeda]] aimed to involve the United States in a prolonged guerrilla war in [[Afghanistan]], challenging its will to fight such a long war.<ref name=":5">((Cite news|url=http://mondrian.die.udec.cl/~mmedina/Desvarios/Files/Danner-TakingStockOfTheForeverWar.pdf|title=Taking Stock of the Forever War|last=Danner|first=Mark|date=11 September 2005|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329125623/http://mondrian.die.udec.cl/~mmedina/Desvarios/Files/Danner-TakingStockOfTheForeverWar.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2018|url-status=dead))</ref>

Wars between ethnic or ideological groups can become forever wars, as such wars are harder to end with a negotiated peace deal due to the different interests of the two sides.<ref name=":3" /> An additional barrier may arise in the case of religious wars if one or both parties believe that the other must be destroyed.<ref name=":3" />

==In current events==

The concept of a perpetual war has been used since [[opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War]]. James Pinckney Harrison argues in ''The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam'' (1981)<ref>((Cite book|title=The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam|url=https://archive.org/details/endlesswarfiftyy0000harr|url-access=registration|last=Harrison|first=James Pinckney|publisher=The Free Press|year=1981|location=New York|isbn=9780029140406))</ref> that the Vietnam War was "endless" due to the success of the communist revolution in nationalizing the people.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Duiker|first=William J.|year=1983|title=Review: The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam|jstor=40105319|journal=The International History Review|volume=5|issue=3|pages=445–448))</ref> The concept was used by [[Trần Văn Đôn]], a general in the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]], in his book ''Our Endless War: Inside Vietnam'' (1978).<ref>((Cite book|title=Our Endless War: Inside Vietnam|last=Van Don|first=Tran|publisher=Presidio Press|year=1978|location=San Rafael, CA))</ref>

American historian [[James Chace]] argues in his book ''Endless War: How we got involved in Central America'' (1983)<ref>((Cite book|title=Endless War: How We Got Involved in Central America-And What Can Be Done|last=Chace|first=James|publisher=Vintage Books|year=1984|isbn=0-394-72779-7))</ref> that US policy in Central America is based upon the assumption that US [[hegemony]] is threatened within the region. According to Chace, US involvement in Central America worked towards resisting the [[domino effect]] of the spread of a "[[Red Scare|communist take-over]]", largely through establishing the credibility of US military.<ref>((Cite journal|last=Gleditsch|first=Hans Petter|year=1986|title=Reviewed Work: Endless War by James Chace|jstor=423500|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=23|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1177/002234338602300108|s2cid=220963528))</ref> Though these policies were meant to deter conflict, they themselves created the conditions for instability in the region, which furthered a US response. This resulted in a self-perpetuating, or "endless", loop. He additionally argues US investment in pursuing an expanding military presence in Central America reflects an endless preparation for war.<ref>((Cite magazine|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1983/12/08/the-endless-war/|title=The Endless War|last=Chace|first=James|website=The New York Review of Books|access-date=2017-02-25))</ref>

A key argument of Chace is that much of this military involvement stems from a logic of US paranoia in reaction to the [[Cuban Revolution]]. A similar argument is put forward by David Keen, political [[economist]] and Professor of Complex Emergencies at the [[London School of Economics]].<ref>[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/DESTIN/whosWho/keend.htm Faculty profile at LSE], retrieved 2010-03-06.</ref> His book ''Endless War? Hidden Function of the 'War on Terror''' (2006)<ref>((cite book |title=Endless war? Hidden functions of the 'war on terror' |last=Keen |first=David |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7453-2417-3 |location=London ))</ref> argues that the United States' strategies and tactics in the [[war on terror]] use a "militaristic state-cased framework". This framework, though "counterproductive", has an "inner logic" and a "psychological function" of responding to the [[Psychological trauma|trauma]] of [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>((Cite journal|last=Reid|first=Julian|year=2008|title=Reviewed Work: Endless War? Hidden Functions of the 'War on Terror' by David Keen|jstor=25144729|journal=International Affairs |volume=84|issue=1|pages=155–156))</ref>

[[Noam Chomsky]] posits that a state of perpetual war is an aid to (and is promoted by) the powerful members of dominant political and economic classes, helping maintain their positions of economic and political superiority.

British journalist [[Robert Fisk]], a critic of Western policies in the [[Middle East]], argues that recent Western conflicts against the Middle East, after the end of the Cold War, have been part of a new perpetual war.<ref>[http://www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/Iraq/fiskiraq.htm Locked in an Orwellian eternal war] ((webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011120150312/http://www.zmag.org/crisescurevts/iraq/fiskiraq.htm |date=2001-11-20 )), by [[Robert Fisk]].</ref> He suggests that former U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]] launched attacks on [[Iraq]], [[Sudan]], and [[Afghanistan]] to distract the population from his domestic political problems. In addition, he claims that despite victorious claims after the first Gulf War that Saddam Hussein had been "defanged", he was again the target of Western attacks until his execution in 2006.

Similarly, [[Ted Koppel]] described the [[war on terror]] as "Our Children's Children's War".<ref>((cite web |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/koppel/highlights/highlights-05.html |title=Koppel on Discovery : Program Highlights : Discovery Channel |access-date=2011-04-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416020618/http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/koppel/highlights/highlights-05.html |archive-date=2011-04-16 ))</ref> Critics of Western policies have used the term "perpetual war" in reference to [[War as metaphor|non-military "wars"]], such as the "[[War on Drugs]]", "[[War on Poverty]]", "[[War on Cancer]]", [[Lou Dobbs]]'s "War on the Middle Class", the "[[War on Terrorism]]",<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/05/how-perpetual-war-became-us-ideology/238600/|title=How Perpetual War Became U.S. Ideology|first=James|last=Joyner|date=May 11, 2011|website=The Atlantic))</ref> the "[[War on Women]]", or [[Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]]'s "[[War on Christmas#United States|War on Christmas]]".

==In socioeconomics and politics==
The economic make-up of the 5th century BC Athens-led [[Delian League]] also bears resemblance to the economic ramifications of ''preparing'' for perpetual war.  Aspects of any given [[empire]], such as the [[British Empire]] and its relation to its domestic businesses that were owned by a wealthy minority of individuals, such as the [[East India Company]], the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], and [[De Beers]], manifest an observed relationship between a minority of individuals influencing Empire or State policy, such as the [[Child's War]] in India, the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] in India, the [[Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay]] in Canada, and the [[Second Boer War]] in South Africa, follow a pattern where the Empire allocates resources pursuing and sustaining policies that financially profit the Empire's domestic business's owners.<ref>"Long Cycles in World Politics" by [[George Modelski]] (1987)</ref>

=== Military–industrial complex ===

The concept of a [[military–industrial complex]] was first suggested by U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]<ref>"The Military–Industrial Complex; The Farewell Address of President Eisenhower" Basements publications 2006 ((ISBN|0-9766423-9-5))</ref> and the idea that military action can be seen as a form of market-creation goes back at least as far as speeches beginning in 1930 prior to the publication of ''[[War Is a Racket]]'' in 1935. On January 16, 1961, President Eisenhower delivered his farewell speech expressing great concern for the direction of the newfound armaments industry post-WWII. While recognizing the boom in economic growth after the war, he reminded the people of United States that this was a way of profiting off warfare and that if not regulated enough it could lead to the "grave" expansion of the armaments industry. For his warning of the thirst to profit from warfare through weapon production, Eisenhower coined the term "military industrial complex". He said, "The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/speeches/farewell_address.pdf|title=Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People|last=Eisenhower|first=Dwight|date=January 17, 1961|website=Dwight D. Eisenhower, presidential library, museum and boyhood home))</ref> Eisenhower feared that the military–industrial complex could lead to a state of perpetual war as the big armament industry will continue to profit from warfare. Additionally, [[NSC 68]] can be used as a reference to understand U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]]'s reasoning for the continued build up the United States' nuclear arsenal and how this contributed to the [[Cold War]]. This concept is still present in today's policies as [[William D. Hartung]] states in his article "The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism".<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.commondreams.org/views/2016/10/25/doctrine-armed-exceptionalism|title=The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism|website=Common Dreams))</ref>

=== War on terror ===
((Main|War on terror))

Traditionally, the term "[[war]]" referred to the physical and conventional act of engaging in armed conflict. However, the implications of what war entails has evolved over time. The war on terror has often been cited as a perpetual war, being a war with "no specific battlefield and the enemy isn’t an army."<ref name="Inside terrorism">((cite book|last1=Hoffman|first1=Bruce|title=Inside terrorism|date=2006|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780231126991|edition= Revised and expanded))</ref> The war on terror has been directed at countless "enemies," as it has no clear target. Georgetown University Historian [[Bruce Hoffman]] describes traditional war as a war that "ends with the vanquishing of an opponent, with some form or armistice or truce- some kind of surrender instrument or document."<ref name="Inside terrorism"/> In contrast, the war on terror continues with no end in sight.

The [[war on terror]] was declared in 2001 by President [[George W. Bush]], following the [[September 11 attacks]], but as early as 1996, [[Osama bin Laden]] of [[Al-Qaeda]] made a threat to the United States, by making a declaration of war. The growing tensions of the Middle East are suggested by Laurence Andrew Dobrot to be very wide cultural misunderstandings and faults the West for not making peace with the Middle East. As the deputy director for the Missile Defense Agency's Airborne Laser Program, Dobrot examines the hostility which has been continuous not only since 2001, but since the birth of [[Wahhabism]].<ref>((Cite book|url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB822.pdf|title=THE GLOBAL WAR ON TERRORISM: A RELIGIOUS WAR?|last=Dobrot|first=Laurence|publisher=Strategic Studies Institute|date=November 2007|location=United States))</ref>

Dobrot proposed that the U.S should recognize the cultural hostility of the tribal Arabs in order to make the first steps towards progression of making peace.

The [[Crusades]] arose as European expansion was growing at the peak of unified Islamic dominance. On September 16, 2001, in a speech, President Bush referred to the war on terror as a crusade. He said:

<blockquote> No one could have conceivably imagined suicide bombers burrowing into our society and then emerging all in the same day to fly their aircraft - fly U.S. aircraft into buildings full of innocent people - and show no remorse.  This is a new kind of  -- a new kind of evil.  And we understand.  And the American people are beginning to understand.  This crusade, this war on terrorism is going to take a while.  And the American people must be patient.  I'm going to be patient.<ref>((Cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010916-2.html|title=President: Today We Mourned, Tomorrow We Work|website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-03-01))</ref></blockquote>

Andrew Bacevich described Bush's naming of the war on terror as a crusade as something which does not make the war separate, rather something that shows that it is part of an "eternal war."<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175704/|title=Tomgram: Andrew Bacevich, The Eternal War? ((!)) TomDispatch|website=www.tomdispatch.com|date=28 May 2013|language=en|access-date=2017-03-01))</ref>

=== War memorials ===

With the advent of perpetual war, communities have begun to construct [[war memorial]]s with names of the dead while the wars are ongoing. The [[Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial]] in [[Irvine, California]] was dedicated in 2010 to American troops who lost their lives in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, with space for 8,000 names (approximately 4,500 used at time of construction) and the intention to update it yearly.<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.northwoodmemorial.com/CopyofHome/OurProducts/tabid/58/ctl/Login/Default.aspx?returnurl=%2fPermanentMemorial%2ftabid%2f58%2fDefault.aspx|title=User Log In|website=www.northwoodmemorial.com))</ref>

==Views of influential writers==

===Sun Tzu===

Ancient war advisor [[Sun Tzu]] expressed views in the 6th century BC about perpetual war.  The following quotation from chapter 2, Waging War, of his book ''[[The Art of War]]'' suggests the negative impacts of prolonged war:

((blockquote|text= Sun Tzu said:  ... When you engage in actual fighting, if victory is long in coming, the men's weapons will grow dull and their ardour will be damped.  If you lay siege to a town, you will exhaust your strength&nbsp;... There is no instance of a country having benefited from prolonged warfare&nbsp;... In war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns.))

===Alexis de Tocqueville===

((See also | Democratic peace theory))
Historian [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] made predictions in 1840 concerning perpetual war in democratic countries.  The following is from Volume 2, chapter 22, "Why Democratic Nations Naturally Desire Peace and Democratic Armies, War", 18th paragraph, in his book, [[Democracy in America]]:

((blockquote|text=No protracted war can fail to endanger the freedom of a democratic country. Not indeed that after every victory it is to be apprehended that the victorious generals will possess themselves by force of the supreme power, after the manner of Sulla and Caesar; the danger is of another kind. War does not always give over democratic communities to military government, but it must invariably and immeasurably increase the powers of civil government; it must almost compulsorily concentrate the direction of all men and the management of all things in the hands of the administration. If it does not lead to despotism by sudden violence, it prepares men for it more gently by their habits. All those who seek to destroy the liberties of a democratic nation ought to know that war is the surest and the shortest means to accomplish it. This is the first axiom of the science.))

==Fiction==
((in popular culture|date=February 2021))
* In [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', the three superstates of the world, [[Eurasia (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|Eurasia]], [[Oceania (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|Oceania]] and [[Eastasia (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|Eastasia]], are said to be in a perpetual state of war with each other. The attacks are in the form of rocket attacks (similar to the V2 Attacks on London in WW2) although it is implied in the book that the attacks could be launched by the home Government against their own people in order to perpetuate fear and hatred of the enemy. Therefore, perpetual war may in fact secretly be a strategy used by [[state (polity)|the state]] to continuously promote its own political agenda. However, the military attacks are limited to the non-aligned areas (North and Central Africa, India etc.), an example of this is The Malabar Front (India) where Oceania won a victory against Eurasia.<ref>((Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-a-love/a-state-of-perpetual-war_b_422616.html|title=A State of Perpetual War|last=Love|first=David A.|date=2010-03-18|website=The Huffington Post|access-date=2017-02-28))</ref>
* In the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' series ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'', the Kaleds and the Thals are in a perpetual state of war and have been for 1000 years.  This state of war finally results in both sides occupying one city each on either side of mountains, and leads to both sides supplies being so completely ravaged by the war that both sides have a collection of black powder weapons, modern and futuristic weapons and armour.  It is out of this war that the Daleks are created by [[Davros]].
* Also in the ''Doctor Who'' series, the [[Sontaran]]s and the [[Rutan (Doctor Who)|Rutans]] have been in a perpetual state of war for over 50,000 years.<ref>((Cite news|url=https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC54M24_sontarans-the-doctor-who-series?guid=e316f894-82aa-439a-affd-f6616d9ce0f4|title=Sontarans: The Doctor Who Series|last=Geocaching|access-date=2017-02-28|language=en))</ref> There appears to be no end in sight, with each side continually attempting to completely obliterate the other. This has resulted in either side constantly gaining and losing territory (including the [[Milky Way]] galaxy, which is known in Doctor Who as the "Mutter's Spiral").
* And again in ''Doctor Who'' in ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'', the Daleks and the Movellans have basically been drawn into an Endless War, due to their battle computers both giving a logical set of orders, only to have one set countered by the other battle computer with an equally logical set of orders.  As both sides are using logical instructions neither side could win as both sides would be able to counter the advances of the other as both were using logic.  The Daleks returned to Skaro to find Davros to see if he could give them an advantage.  The Movellans tried to get the Doctor to give them the same advantage.
* In the ''[[2000 AD (comics)|2000AD]]'' series ''[[Rogue Trooper]]'', the North (Norts) and South (Southers) of the Planet Nu-Earth, for hundreds of years, have been in a perpetual state of war against each other using conventional, biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons.<ref>((Cite web|url=http://comicvine.gamespot.com/rogue-trooper/4005-41562/|title=Rogue Trooper (Character) - Comic Vine|website=Comic Vine|language=en|access-date=2017-02-28))</ref> The length of the war as well as the weapons involved have turned the planet uninhabitable without protective suits. It was for this reason that the Southers created the GIs or Genetic Infantry which would be able to survive in the environment.
* [[Joe Haldeman]]'s ''[[The Forever War]]'' is about a war that is made perpetual due to the [[Albert Einstein|Einsteinian]] [[time dilation]] effects due to space travel. The novel is said to have been shaped by Haldeman's experience in the Vietnam War as the book contains references to the war paired up with sci-fi concepts. A quote by Haldeman shows great influence from Hobbes' concept of perpetual war, "Life begins in a bloody mess and sometimes it ends the same way, and only odd people seek out blood between those times, maybe crazy people."<ref>((Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/m-I-t/science_fiction/profiles/haldeman_index.html|title=Science Fiction-Media in Transition|website=web.mit.edu|access-date=2017-02-27))</ref>
* In the original ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'' episode "[[A Taste of Armageddon]]", the neighboring planets of Eminiar and Vendikar have been at war for 500 years. To avoid the physical devastation of an actual war, the belligerents agreed to conduct only computer-simulated attacks as long as the resulting "victims" voluntarily kill themselves in "disintegration stations".<ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.startrek.com/database_article/taste-of-armageddon|title=Taste of Armageddon, A|website=StarTrek.com|language=en|access-date=2017-02-26))</ref>
* The 2006 film ''[[Children of Men]]'' displays themes of perpetual war by exploring the wars on Terror and Poverty. The movie is set in a dystopia suffering universal infertility. The social and political world has become chaotic as few people exercise social power from their wealthy positions. Meanwhile, there is constant conflict all around the world, which specifically the oppressed group suffers. Manohla Dargis of ''The New York Times'' takes notice to the norm of bombs casually exploding in public places, such as a cafe. Dargis writes, "It imagines the unthinkable: What if instead of containing Iraq, the world has become Iraq, a universal battleground of military control, security zones, refugee camps and warring tribal identities?"<ref>((Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/25/movies/25chil.html|title=Children of Men - Movies - Review|last=Dargis|first=Manohla|date=2006-12-25|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=2017-02-26|issn=0362-4331))</ref>

==See also==

*[[Arab–Israeli conflict]] 
*[[Endemic warfare]]
*[[Just war]]
*[[List of ongoing armed conflicts]]
*[[List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity]]
*[[Permanent war economy]]
*[[Perpetual peace]]
*[[Rogue state]]
*[[Roman–Persian Wars]], noted for being "never-ending" by classical authors
*[[Si vis pacem, para bellum]]
*[[Syrian civil war]]
*''[[The Report from Iron Mountain]]''
*[[War as metaphor]]
*''[[War Is a Racket]]''

==Notes==
((reflist))

==References==
*''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace'', by [[Gore Vidal]]. Nation Books, 2002. ((ISBN|1-56025-405-X))
*''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace'', edited by [[Harry Elmer Barnes]], The Caxton Printers Ltd., 1953 -  [https://mises.org/books/perpetual.pdf Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace]

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20030410150143/http://www.douglasvalentine.com/article_security.html Homeland Security: When The Phoenix Comes Home To Roost], by Douglas Valentine.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060519141322/http://www.interventionmag.com/cms/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1128 The Eternal War Parade], from Intervention Magazine.
*[http://fair-use.org/randolph-bourne/the-state/ ''The State''], by [[Randolph Bourne]] – origin of the phrase, "war is the health of the state".
*[http://www.spunk.org/texts/writers/black/sp001675.html The War on Drugs as the Health of the State], by [[The Abolition of Work|Bob Black]].
*[http://www.commondreams.org/views/2016/10/25/doctrine-armed-exceptionalism The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism]. by [[William D. Hartung|William Hartung.]]

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[[Category:Cold War]]
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[[Category:Wars by type]]

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