While sucralose is largely considered shelf-stable and safe for use at elevated temperatures (such as in baked goods), there is some evidence that it begins to break down at temperatures above 119 °C (246 °F).[5][6] The commercial success of sucralose-based products stems from its favorable comparison to other low-calorie sweeteners in terms of taste, stability and safety.[7] It is commonly sold under the Splenda brand name.
Uses
Sucralose is used in many food and beverage products because it is a no-calorie sweetener, does not promote dental cavities,[8] is safe for consumption by diabetics and nondiabetics,[9][10] and does not affect insulin levels,[11] although the powdered form of sucralose-based sweetener product Splenda (as most other powdered sucralose products) contains 95% (by volume) bulking agents dextrose and maltodextrin that do affect insulin levels. Sucralose is used as a replacement for (or in combination with) other artificial or natural sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame potassium or high-fructose corn syrup. It is used in products such as candy, breakfast bars, coffee pods, and soft drinks. It is also used in canned fruits wherein water and sucralose take the place of much higher calorie corn syrup-based additives. Sucralose mixed with dextrose or maltodextrin (both made from corn) as bulking agents is sold internationally by McNeil Nutritionals under the Splenda brand name. In the United States and Canada, this blend is increasingly found in restaurants in yellow packets.[a]
Cooking
Sucralose is available in a granulated form that allows same-volume substitution with sugar. This mix of granulated sucralose includes fillers, all of which rapidly dissolve in water. While the granulated sucralose provides apparent volume-for-volume sweetness, the texture in baked products may be noticeably different. Sucralose is not hygroscopic, which can lead to baked goods that are noticeably drier and manifest a less dense texture than those made with sucrose. Unlike sucrose, which melts when baked at high temperatures, sucralose maintains its granular structure when subjected to dry, high heat (e.g., in a 180 °C or 350 °F oven). Furthermore, in its pure state, sucralose begins to decompose at 119 °C (246 °F).[5] Thus, in some recipes, such as crème brûlée, which require sugar sprinkled on top to partially or fully melt and crystallize, substituting sucralose does not result in the same surface texture, crispness, or crystalline structure.
Various assessments have reported different amounts of maximum acceptable daily intake (ADI), usually measured as mg per kg of body weight. According to the Canadian Diabetes Association, the amount of sucralose that can be consumed over a person's lifetime without any adverse effects is 9 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day.[12][13] The FDA approval process indicated that consuming sucralose in typical amounts as a sweetener was safe.[13][14]The intake at which adverse effects are seen is 1500 mg/kg BW/day,[14] providing a large margin of safety compared to the estimated daily intake. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) proposed an ADI of 5 mg per kg (body weight) while the FDA established it as 15 mg per kg body weight, that is, 350–1050 mg per day for a person of 70 kg.[15]
Metabolism
Most ingested sucralose is directly excreted in the feces, while about 11–27% is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract (gut).[13][14] The amount absorbed from the gut is largely removed from the blood by the kidneys and eliminated via urine, with 20–30% of absorbed sucralose being metabolized.[13][14]
Possible health effects
In a review of sucralose's safety, the FDA states that it "reviewed data from more than 110 studies in humans and animals. Many of the studies were designed to identify possible toxic effects including carcinogenic, reproductive and neurological effects. No such effects were found, and FDA's approval is based on its finding that sucralose is safe for human consumption."[16] In reviewing a 1987 food additive petition by McNeil Nutritionals, the FDA stated that "in the 2-year rodent bioassays... there was no evidence of carcinogenic activity for either sucralose or its hydrolysis products".[17][14]
As of 2020, reviews of numerous safety and toxicology studies on sucralose concluded that it is not carcinogenic.[13][14] However, a recent study found that high doses of sucralose had an immunomodulatory effect by limiting T cell proliferation and T cell differentiation in mice and thus probably in humans.[15]
Processing of sucralose in food
Research revealed that when sucralose is heated to above 120 °C (248 °F), it may dechlorinate and decompose into compounds that could be harmful enough to risk consumer health.[13][14] The risk and intensity of this adverse effect is suspected to increase with rising temperatures.[18] The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment published a warning that cooking with sucralose could possibly lead to the creation of potentially carcinogenic chloropropanols, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, recommending that manufacturers and consumers avoid baking, roasting, or deep frying any sucralose-containing foods until a more conclusive safety report is available.[19] Furthermore, adding sucralose to food that has not cooled was discouraged, as was buying sucralose-containing canned foods and baked goods.[19][20]
History
Sucralose was discovered in 1976 by scientists from Tate & Lyle, working with researchers Leslie Hough and Shashikant Phadnis at Queen Elizabeth College (now part of King's College London).[21] While researching novel uses of sucrose and its synthetic derivatives, Phadnis was told to "test" a chlorinated sugar compound. Phadnis thought Hough asked him to "taste" it, so he did.[22] He found the compound to be exceptionally sweet.
Tate & Lyle patented the substance in 1976; as of 2008, the only remaining patents concern specific manufacturing processes.[23]
A Duke University animal study funded by the Sugar Association[24] found evidence that doses of Splenda (containing ~1% sucralose and ~99% maltodextrin by weight) between 100 and 1000 mg/kg BW/day, containing sucralose at 1.1 to 11 mg/kg BW/day, fed to rats reduced gut microbiota, increased the pH level in the intestines, contributed to increases in body weight, and increased levels of P-glycoprotein (P-gp).[25] These effects have not been reported in humans.[4] An expert panel, including scientists from Duke University, Rutgers University, New York Medical College, Harvard School of Public Health, and Columbia University reported in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology that the Duke study was "not scientifically rigorous and is deficient in several critical areas that preclude reliable interpretation of the study results".[26]
Sucralose was first approved for use in Canada in 1991. Subsequent approvals came in Australia in 1993, in New Zealand in 1996, in the United States in 1998, and in the European Union in 2004. By 2008, it had been approved in over 80 countries, including Mexico, Brazil, China, India, and Japan.[27] In 2006, the FDA amended the regulations for foods to include sucralose as a "non-nutritive sweetener" in food.[28] In May 2008, Fusion Nutraceuticals launched a generic product to the market, using Tate & Lyle patents.
In April 2015, PepsiCo announced that it would be moving from aspartame to sucralose for most of its diet drinks in the U.S.[29] due to sales of Diet Pepsi falling by more than 5% in the U.S. The company stated that its decision was a commercial one, responding to consumer preferences.
In February 2018, PepsiCo went back to using aspartame in Diet Pepsi because of an 8% drop in sales for the previous year.[30][31]
Chemistry and production
Comparison of the chemical structures of sucrose (top) and sucralose (bottom)
Sucralose is stable when stored under normal conditions of temperature, pressure and humidity.[34] Upon prolonged heating during storage at elevated temperatures (38 °C, 100 °F), sucralose may break down, releasing carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and minor amounts of hydrogen chloride.[34]
Effect on caloric content
Though sucralose contains no calories, products that contain fillers such as dextrose and/or maltodextrin add about 2–4 calories per teaspoon or individual packet, depending on the product, the fillers used, brand, and the intended use of the product.[35] The FDA allows for any product containing fewer than five calories per serving to be labeled as "zero calories".[36]
According to one study, sucralose is digestible by a number of microorganisms and is broken down once released into the environment.[38] However, measurements by the Swedish Environmental Research Institute have shown sewage treatment has little effect on sucralose, which is present in wastewater effluents at levels of several μg/L (ppb).[39] No ecotoxicological effects are known at such levels, but the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency warns a continuous increase in levels may occur if the compound is only slowly degraded in nature. When heated to very high temperatures (over 350 °C or 662 °F) in metal containers, sucralose can produce polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and other persistent organic pollutants in the resulting smoke.[40]
Sucralose has been detected in natural waters, but research indicates that the levels found in the environment are far below those required to cause adverse effects to certain kinds of aquatic life.[41]
^This is contrast to the blue packets commonly used for aspartame and pink ones containing saccharin sweeteners. In Canada, yellow packets are also associated with SugarTwin's cyclamate sweetener.
^Food and Drug Administration (March 2006). "Food labeling: health claims; dietary noncariogenic carbohydrate sweeteners and dental caries. Final rule". Federal Register. 71 (60): 15559–15564. PMID16572525.
^Grotz VL, Henry RR, McGill JB, Prince MJ, Shamoon H, Trout JR, Pi-Sunyer FX (December 2003). "Lack of effect of sucralose on glucose homeostasis in subjects with type 2 diabetes". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (12): 1607–1612. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2003.09.021. PMID14647086.
^FAP 7A3987, 16 August 1996. pp. 1–357. A 12-week study of the effect of sucralose on glucose homeostasis and HbA1c in normal healthy volunteers, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. FDA
^Eisenreich A, Gürtler R, Schäfer B (August 2020). "Heating of food containing sucralose might result in the generation of potentially toxic chlorinated compounds". Food Chemistry. 321: 126700. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126700. PMID32278984. S2CID215748494.
^Abou-Donia MB, El-Masry EM, Abdel-Rahman AA, McLendon RE, Schiffman SS (2008). "Splenda alters gut microflora and increases intestinal p-glycoprotein and cytochrome p-450 in male rats". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A. 71 (21): 1415–1429. doi:10.1080/15287390802328630. PMID18800291. S2CID11909980.
^Labare MP, Alexander M (1993). "Biodegradation of sucralose in samples of natural environments". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 12 (5): 797–804. doi:10.1897/1552-8618(1993)12[797:BOSACC]2.0.CO;2.
^Stoddard KI, Huggett DB (October 2014). "Early life stage (ELS) toxicity of sucralose to fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 93 (4): 383–387. doi:10.1007/s00128-014-1348-9. PMID25120258. S2CID5380255.
