Front side (obverse) of the Nobel Prize Medal for Physiology or Medicine

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded annually by the Swedish Karolinska Institute to scientists in the various fields of physiology or medicine. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel (who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine.[1] As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by a committee that consists of five members and an executive secretary elected by the Karolinska Institute.[2][3] While commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine, Nobel specifically stated that the prize be awarded for "physiology or medicine" in his will. Because of this, the prize can be awarded in a broader range of fields.[3] The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to Emil Adolf von Behring, of Germany. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years.[4] In 1901, von Behring received 150,782 SEK, which was equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2008. The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death.[5]

Laureates have won the Nobel Prize in a wide range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine. As of 2009, 8 Prizes have been awarded for contributions in the field of signal transduction by G proteins and second messengers, 13 have been awarded for contributions in the field of neurobiology and 13 have been awarded for contributions in intermediary metabolism.[3] In 1939 Gerhard Domagk, a German, was not allowed by his government to accept the prize. He later received a medal and diploma, but not the money.[6] As of 2021, the prize has been awarded to 224 individuals, twelve of them were women (Gerty Cori being the first to be awarded in 1947).[7]

There have been nine years in which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was not awarded (1915–1918, 1921, 1925, 1940–1942). There were also five years for which the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was delayed for one year. The Prize was not awarded in 1914, as the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine decided that none of that year's nominations met the necessary criteria, but was awarded to Robert Bárány in 1915 and counted as the 1914 prize.[8] This precedent was followed for the 1922 prize awarded to Archibald Hill and Otto Fritz Meyerhof in 1923,[9] the 1926 prize awarded to Johannes Fibiger in 1927,[10] the 1938 prize awarded to Corneille Heymans in 1939,[11] and the 1943 prize awarded to Henrik Dam and Edward Adelbert Doisy in 1944.[12]

Laureates

Year Image Laureate[A] Country[B] Rationale[C] Ref
1901 Emil von Behring (1854–1917)  Germany "for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths" [13]
1902 Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932)  United Kingdom "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it" [14]
1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen (1860–1904)  Denmark "[for] his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science" [15]
1904 Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)  Russia "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged" [16]
1905 Robert Koch (1843–1910)  Germany "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis" [17]
1906 Camillo Golgi (1843–1926)  Italy "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system" [18]
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934)  Spain
1907 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845–1922)  France "in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases" [19]
1908 Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916)  Russia "in recognition of their work on immunity" [20]
Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915)  Germany
1909 Emil Theodor Kocher (1841–1917)   Switzerland "for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland" [21]
1910 Albrecht Kossel (1853–1927)  Germany "in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances" [22]
1911 Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930)  Sweden "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye" [23]
1912 Alexis Carrel (1873–1944)  France "[for] his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs" [24]
1913 Charles Richet (1850–1935)  France "[for] his work on anaphylaxis" [25]
1914 Robert Bárány (1876–1936)  Austria-Hungary "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus" [8]
1915 Not awarded
1916
1917
1918
1919 Jules Bordet (1870–1961)  Belgium "for his discoveries relating to immunity" [26]
1920 August Krogh (1874–1949)  Denmark "for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism" [27]
1921 Not awarded
1922 Archibald Hill (1886–1977)  United Kingdom "for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle" [9]
Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884–1951)  Germany "for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle" [9]
1923 Sir Frederick Banting (1891–1941)  Canada "for the discovery of insulin" [28]
John Macleod (1876–1935)  United Kingdom
1924 Willem Einthoven (1860–1927)  Netherlands "for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram" [29]
1925 Not awarded
1926 Johannes Fibiger (1867–1928)  Denmark "for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma" [10]
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857–1940)  Austria "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica" [30]
1928 Charles Nicolle (1866–1936)  France "for his work on typhus" [31]
1929 Christiaan Eijkman (1868–1930)  Netherlands "for his discovery of the antineuritic vitamin" [32]
Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947)  United Kingdom "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins" [32]
1930 Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943)  Austria "for his discovery of human blood groups" [33]
1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg (1883–1970)  Germany "for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme" [34]
1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857–1952)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons" [35]
Edgar Adrian (1889–1977)
1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866–1945)  United States "for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity" [36]
1934 George Whipple (1878–1976)  United States "for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia" [37]
George Minot (1885–1950)
William P. Murphy (1892–1987)
1935 Hans Spemann (1869–1941)  Germany "for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development" [38]
1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses" [39]
Otto Loewi (1873–1961)  Austria
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986)  Hungary "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid" [40]
1938 Corneille Heymans (1892–1968)  Belgium "for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration" [11]
1939 Gerhard Domagk (1895–1964)  Germany "for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil" [41]
1940 Not awarded
1941
1942
1943 Henrik Dam (1895–1976)  Denmark "for his discovery of vitamin K" [12]
Edward Adelbert Doisy (1893–1986)  United States "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K" [12]
1944 Joseph Erlanger (1874–1965)  United States "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres" [42]
Herbert Spencer Gasser (1888–1963)
1945 Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955)  United Kingdom "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases" [43]
Sir Ernst Boris Chain (1906–1979)
Howard Walter Florey (1898–1968)  Australia
1946 Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967)  United States "for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation" [44]
1947 Carl Ferdinand Cori (1896–1984)  United States "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen" [45]
Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz (1896–1957)
Bernardo Alberto Houssay (1887–1971)  Argentina "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar" [45]
1948 Paul Hermann Müller (1899–1965)   Switzerland "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods" [46]
1949 Walter Rudolf Hess (1881–1973)   Switzerland "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs" [47]
António Caetano Egas Moniz (1874–1955)  Portugal "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy (lobotomy) in certain psychoses" [47]
1950 Philip Showalter Hench (1896–1965)  United States "for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects" [48]
Edward Calvin Kendall (1886–1972)
Tadeusz Reichstein (1897–1996)   Switzerland
1951 Max Theiler (1899–1972)  South Africa
 United States 		"for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it" [49]
1952 Selman Abraham Waksman (1888–1973)  United States "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis" [50]
1953 Sir Hans Adolf Krebs (1900–1981)  United Kingdom "for his discovery of the citric acid cycle" [51]
Fritz Albert Lipmann (1899–1986)  United States "for his discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism" [51]
1954 John Franklin Enders (1897–1985)  United States "for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue" [52]
Frederick Chapman Robbins (1916–2003)
Thomas Huckle Weller (1915–2008)
1955 Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell (1903–1982)  Sweden "for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes" [53]
1956 André Frédéric Cournand (1895–1988)  United States "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system" [54]
Werner Forssmann (1904–1979)  West Germany
Dickinson W. Richards (1895–1973)  United States
1957 Daniel Bovet (1907–1992)  Italy "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles" [55]
1958 George Wells Beadle (1903–1989)  United States "for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events" [56]
Edward Lawrie Tatum (1909–1975)
Joshua Lederberg (1925–2008) "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria" [56]
1959 Arthur Kornberg (1918–2007)  United States "for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid" [57]
Severo Ochoa (1905–1993)  United States
1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet (1899–1985)  Australia "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance" [58]
Sir Peter Brian Medawar (1915–1987)  United Kingdom
1961 Georg von Békésy (1899–1972)  Hungary "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea" [59]
1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material" [60]
James Dewey Watson (b. 1928)  United States
Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins (1916–2004)  New Zealand
 United Kingdom
1963 Sir John Carew Eccles (1903–1997)  Australia "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane" [61]
Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (1914–1998)  United Kingdom
Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley (1917–2012)
1964 Konrad Bloch (1912–2000)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism" [62]
Feodor Lynen (1911–1979)  West Germany
1965 François Jacob (1920–2013)  France "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis" [63]
André Lwoff (1902–1994)
Jacques Monod (1910–1976)
1966 Peyton Rous (1879–1970)  United States "for his discovery of tumour-inducing viruses" [64]
Charles Brenton Huggins (1901–1997) "for his discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer" [64]
1967 Ragnar Granit (1900–1991) Sweden/

Finland

"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye" [65]
Haldan Keffer Hartline (1903–1983)  United States
George Wald (1906–1997)
1968 Robert W. Holley (1922–1993)  United States "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis" [66]
Har Gobind Khorana (1922–2011)
Marshall W. Nirenberg (1927–2010)
1969 Max Delbrück (1906–1981)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses" [67]
Alfred D. Hershey (1908–1997)
Salvador E. Luria (1912–1991)
1970 Julius Axelrod (1912–2004)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation" [68]
Ulf von Euler (1905–1983)  Sweden
Sir Bernard Katz (1911–2003)  United Kingdom
1971 Earl W. Sutherland Jr. (1915–1974)  United States "for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones" [69]
1972 Gerald M. Edelman (1929–2014)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies" [70]
Rodney R. Porter (1917–1985)  United Kingdom
1973 Karl von Frisch (1886–1982)  West Germany "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns" [71]
Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989)  Austria
Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907–1988)  Netherlands
1974 Albert Claude (1899–1983)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell" [72]
Christian de Duve (1917–2013)  Belgium
George E. Palade (1912–2008)  United States
1975 David Baltimore (b. 1938)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell" [73]
Renato Dulbecco (1914–2012)  United Kingdom
 United States
Howard Martin Temin (1934–1994)  United States
1976 Baruch S. Blumberg (1925–2011)  United States "for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases" [74]
D. Carleton Gajdusek (1923–2008)
1977 Roger Guillemin (b. 1924)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain" [75]
Andrew V. Schally (b. 1926)
Rosalyn Yalow (1921–2011) "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones" [75]
1978 Werner Arber (b. 1929)   Switzerland "for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics" [76]
Daniel Nathans (1928–1999)  United States
Hamilton O. Smith (b. 1931)
1979 Allan M. Cormack (1924–1998)  United States "for the development of computer assisted tomography" [77]
Sir Godfrey N. Hounsfield (1919–2004)  United Kingdom
1980 Baruj Benacerraf (1920–2011)  Venezuela "for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions" [78]
Jean Dausset (1916–2009)  France
George D. Snell (1903–1996)  United States
1981 Roger W. Sperry (1913–1994)  United States "for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres" [79]
David H. Hubel (1926–2013)  United States "for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system" [79]
Torsten N. Wiesel (b. 1924)  Sweden United States
1982 Sune K. Bergström (1916–2004)  Sweden "for their discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances" [80]
Bengt I. Samuelsson (b. 1934)
Sir John R. Vane (1927–2004)  United Kingdom
1983 Barbara McClintock (1902–1992)  United States "for her discovery of mobile genetic elements" [81]
1984 Niels K. Jerne (1911–1994)  Denmark  Switzerland "for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies" [82]
Georges J. F. Köhler (1946–1995)  West Germany  Switzerland
César Milstein (1927–2002)  Argentina
 United Kingdom
1985 Michael S. Brown (b. 1941)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism" [83]
Joseph L. Goldstein (b. 1940)
1986 Stanley Cohen (1922–2020)  United States "for their discoveries of growth factors" [84]
Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012)  Italy
1987 Susumu Tonegawa (b. 1939)  Japan "for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity" [85]
1988 Sir James W. Black (1924–2010)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment" [86]
Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999)  United States
George H. Hitchings (1905–1998)
1989 J. Michael Bishop (b. 1936)  United States "for their discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes" [87]
Harold E. Varmus (b. 1939)
1990 Joseph E. Murray (1919–2012)  United States "for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease" [88]
E. Donnall Thomas (1920–2012)
1991 Erwin Neher (b. 1944)  Germany "for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells" [89]
Bert Sakmann (b. 1942)
1992 Edmond H. Fischer (1920–2021)   Switzerland
 United States 		"for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism" [90]
Edwin G. Krebs (1918–2009)  United States
1993 Sir Richard J. Roberts (b. 1943)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries of split genes" [91]
Phillip A. Sharp (b. 1944)  United States
1994 Alfred G. Gilman (1941–2015)  United States "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells" [92]
Martin Rodbell (1925–1998)
1995 Edward B. Lewis (1918–2004)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development" [93]
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (b. 1942)  Germany
Eric F. Wieschaus (b. 1947)  United States
1996 Peter C. Doherty (b. 1940)  Australia "for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence" [94]
Rolf M. Zinkernagel (b. 1944)   Switzerland
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner (b. 1942)  United States "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection" [95]
1998 Robert F. Furchgott (1916–2009)  United States "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system" [96]
Louis J. Ignarro (b. 1941)
Ferid Murad (1936–2023)
1999 Günter Blobel (1936–2018)  United States "for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell" [97]
2000 Arvid Carlsson (1923–2018)  Sweden "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system" [98]
Paul Greengard (1925–2019)  United States
Eric R. Kandel (b. 1929)
2001 Leland H. Hartwell (b. 1939)  United States "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle" [99]
Sir Tim Hunt (b. 1943)  United Kingdom
Sir Paul M. Nurse (b. 1949)
2002 Sydney Brenner (1927–2019)  South Africa "for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'" [100]
H. Robert Horvitz (b. 1947)  United States
Sir John E. Sulston (1942–2018)  United Kingdom
2003 Paul Lauterbur (1929–2007)  United States "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging" [101]
Sir Peter Mansfield (1933–2017)  United Kingdom
2004 Richard Axel (b. 1946)  United States "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system" [102]
Linda B. Buck (b. 1947)
2005 Barry J. Marshall (b. 1951)  Australia "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease" [103]
J. Robin Warren (b. 1937)
2006 Andrew Z. Fire (b. 1959)  United States "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA" [104]
Craig C. Mello (b. 1960)
2007 Mario R. Capecchi (b. 1937)  United States "for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells." [105]
Sir Martin J. Evans (b. 1941)  United Kingdom
Oliver Smithies (1925–2017)  United States
2008 Harald zur Hausen (1936–2023)  Germany "for his discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer" [106]
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (b. 1947)  France "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus" [106]
Luc Montagnier (1932–2022)
2009 Elizabeth H. Blackburn (b. 1948)  United States "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase" [107]
Carol W. Greider (b. 1961)
Jack W. Szostak (b. 1952)
2010 Sir Robert G. Edwards (1925–2013)  United Kingdom "for the development of in vitro fertilization" [108]
2011 Bruce A. Beutler (b. 1957)  United States "for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" [109]
Jules A. Hoffmann (b. 1941)  France
Ralph M. Steinman (1943–2011)  Canada "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity" (awarded posthumously)[110][111] [109]
2012 Sir John B. Gurdon (b. 1933)  United Kingdom "for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent" [112]
Shinya Yamanaka Shinya Yamanaka (b. 1962)  Japan
2013 James E. Rothman (b. 1950)  United States "for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells" [113]
Randy W. Schekman (b. 1948)
Thomas C. Südhof (b. 1955)  United States
2014 John O'Keefe (b. 1939)  United Kingdom "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain" [114]
May-Britt Moser (b. 1963)  Norway
Edvard I. Moser (b. 1962)
2015 William C. Campbell (b. 1930)  United States "for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites" [115]
Satoshi Ōmura (b. 1935)  Japan
Tu Youyou (b. 1930)  China "for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against malaria" [115]
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi (b. 1945)  Japan "for his discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy" [116]
2017 Jeffrey C. Hall (b. 1945)  United States "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" [117]
Michael Rosbash (b. 1944)
Michael W. Young (b. 1949)
2018 James P. Allison (b. 1948)  United States "for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation" [118]
Tasuku Honjo (b. 1942)  Japan
2019 William Kaelin Jr. (b. 1957)  United States "for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability" [119]
Peter J. Ratcliffe (b. 1954)  United Kingdom
Gregg L. Semenza (b. 1956)  United States
2020 Harvey J. Alter (b. 1935)  United States "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus" [120]
Michael Houghton (b. 1949)  United Kingdom
Charles M. Rice (b. 1952)  United States
2021 David Julius (b. 1955)  United States "for the discovery of receptors for temperature and touch" [121]
Ardem Patapoutian (b. 1967)  United States
2022 Svante Pääbo (b. 1955)  Sweden "for his discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution" [122]
2023 Katalin Karikó (b. 1955)  Hungary
 United States 		"for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19" [123]
Drew Weissman (b. 1959)  United States

References

Notes

^ A. The form and spelling of the names in the name column is according to nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. Alternative spellings and name forms, where they exist, are given at the articles linked from this column. Where available, an image of each Nobel laureate is provided. For the official pictures provided by the Nobel Foundation, see the pages for each Nobel laureate at nobelprize.org.

^ B. The information in the country column is according to nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient's birthplace or citizenship, and instead reflect their academic or scientific affiliation at the time of receiving the award.

^ C. The citation for each award is quoted (not always in full) from nobelprize.org, the official website of the Nobel Foundation. The links in this column are to articles (or sections of articles) on the history and areas of physiology and medicine for which the awards were presented. The links are intended only as a guide and explanation. For a full account of the work done by each Nobel laureate, please see the biography articles linked from the name column.

Citations

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