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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power, much like constitutional monarchies (however in some countries the head of state, regardless of whether the country's system is a parliamentary republic or a constitutional monarchy, has 'reserve powers' given to use at their discretion in order to act as a non-partisan 'referee' of the political process and ensure the nation's constitution is upheld).[1][2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary power.
For the first case mentioned above, the form of executive-branch arrangement is distinct from most other governments and semi-presidential republics that separate the head of state (usually designated as the "president") from the head of government (usually designated as "prime minister", "premier" or "chancellor") and subject the latter to the confidence of parliament and a lenient tenure in office while the head of state lacks dependency and investing either office with the majority of executive power.[clarification needed]
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have 'reserve powers' or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[1][2][clarification needed]
However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Austria and Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system, with the position of head of state given to a monarch.[3]
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and what some critics considered to be a de facto coup d'état, subsequently legitimized by a referendum on 5 October 1958, led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a Presidential one.[original research?]
Main article: Commonwealth of Nations |
Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by an elected non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India and Vanuatu. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
Main article: List of countries by system of government § Parliamentary republics |
Full parliamentary republics | |||||
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Country | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
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Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
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Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018[note 1] | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss) | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 2] | Presidential republic | |
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Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | |
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Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991[note 3] | One-party state (part of Soviet Union) | |
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Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000[note 4] | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Electoral college (parliament and regional delegates), by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018[note 5] | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Federal Assembly (parliament and state delegates), by absolute majority | Bicameral | 1949[note 6] | One-party state | |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | |
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Parliament, by two-round | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state | |
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Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | |
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Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
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Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral[note 7] | 2005 | One-party state | |
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Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949[note 8] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | |
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Parliament and region delegates, by absolute majority | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |
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Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2010 | Presidential republic | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 9] | One-party state (part of Soviet Union) | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[4])[5] | |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[6][7][8])[5] | |
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Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) |
Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
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Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral[9] | 2015[note 10] | Constitutional monarchy | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
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Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010[10][11] | Semi-presidential republic | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
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Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | |
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Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
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Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
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Parliament | Bicameral | 2012[note 11] | One-party state | |
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Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[12])[5] | |
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Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | |
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | |||||
Country | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | |
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Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | |
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Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | |
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Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[13][14][15])[5] | |
Assembly-independent systems | |||||
Country | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
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Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1986 | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
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Parliament, by an electoral college | Bicameral | 2010 | Military dictatorship | |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 2010 | ? | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent |
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Parliament | Unicameral | 1975 | Constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. | |
Directorial systems | |||||
Country | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
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Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | Bicameral | 1848 | Confederation of states | Also has citizen-initiated referenda |