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((short description|Self-proclaimed independent republic, 1899–1902))
((Use mdy dates|date=May 2020))
((Use Philippine English|date=December 2022))
((Infobox former country
| native_name            = ((native name|es|República Filipina))<br />((native name|tl|Republika ng Pilipinas))
| conventional_long_name = Philippine Republic
| common_name            = Philippines, Republic First
| status                 = [[List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies|Unrecognized state]]
| era                    = [[Philippine–American War]]
| date_start             = January 23,
| year_start             = 1899<ref name=clarifydates group=Note>The Malolos Constitution was approved by the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines|Malolos Congress]] on January 20, 1899, sanctioned by [[Emilio Aguinaldo|Aguinaldo]] on January 21, and promulgated on January 22 (see items [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/106?page=root;size=100;view=image 27] and [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/123?page=root;size=100;view=image 27a] in ((Harvnb|Guevara|1972))). The republic was proclaimed on January 23 (see items [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/138?view=image&size=100 28], [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/139?page=root;size=100;view=image 28a] and [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/140?page=root;size=100;view=image 28b] in ((Harvnb|Guevara|1972))).</ref>
| event_start            = [[#Philippine–American War|Established]]
| date_end               = April 1,
| year_end               = 1901((refn|name="ending date"|group=Note|This article uses April 1, 1901, the date its president, [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], took an oath of allegiance to the U.S., as the ending date of the First Philippine Republic. Some ending dates seen in other sources are: 23 March 1901, the date of Aguinaldo's capture by U.S. forces; 19 April 1901, the date he signed a manifesto calling on his countrymen to give up the fight; April 9, 1902, the date General [[Miguel Malvar]], who continued to fight and is seen by some as having unofficially taken up the presidency after Aguinaldo's capture, was captured; and July 4, 1902, the date of the full amnesty for those who had participated in the war was proclaimed by U.S. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]].((sfn|Doyle|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBryc3ANF6IC&pg=PA155 155-156]))<ref>((cite book|last=Beede|first=Benjamin R.|title=The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898T1934: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg6BAAAAQBAJ|year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-74690-1|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rg6BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA419 419]|quote=[O]n 24 March, Aguinaldo was captured in the mountain region of Palanan, Isabela Province, and on 2 April 1901 he took an oath of allegiance to the United States. On 19 April 1901 he appealed to all Filipinos to accept the sovereignty of the United States. The existence of the revolutionary government came to an end officially when, on 4 July 1901, U.S. Military government ceased to exist in the Philippines.))</ref><ref>((harvnb|Doyle|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBryc3ANF6IC&pg=PA155 155])), "Aguinaldo was taken prisoner in his bedroom on 23 March 1910 and informed that he was a prisoner of the U.S. Army. On 1 April 1901, Emilio Aganaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States, and on 19 April he signed a manifesto calling on his countrymen to give up the fight. It read in part: '[...] By acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States throughout the entire archipelago,&nbsp;[...]'"</ref><ref>((cite book|last=Oliver|first=Robert Tarbell|title=Leadership in Asia: Persuasive Communication in the Making of Nations, 1850–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3BUEhOo8ycC|year=1989|publisher=University of Delaware Press|isbn=978-0-87413-353-0|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3BUEhOo8ycC&pg=PA169 169]|quote=On 19 April 1901 Aguinaldo issued a farewell proclamation to his people, bringing the republic to an end:&nbsp;...))</ref><ref>((cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1902/07/04/proclamation-on-u-s-president-theodore-roosevelts-pardon-of-the-people-of-philippine-archipelago/|title=Proclamation on U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt's pardon of the people of Philippine Archipelago, s. 1902|publisher=Government of the United States|via=Official Gazette of the Philippine Government|date=July 4, 1901|quote=Whereas the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States is now at an end))</ref><ref>((cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/09/proclamation-no-173-s-2002/|title=Presidential Proclamation No. 173 S. 2002|date=April 9, 2002|publisher=Official Gazette|quote=WHEREAS, Tuesday, April 16, 2002, marks the centennial celebration of the end of the Philippine-American War [and] WHEREAS, the day also marks the day when General Miguel Malvar, a true-blooded Batangueño and the last President of the Philippine Revolutionary Government surrendered to the Americans;&nbsp;...))</ref>))
| event_end              = [[Philippine–American War#Decline and fall of the First Philippine Republic|Dissolved]]
| p1                     = Captaincy General of the Philippines
| flag_p1                = Flag of Spain (1785-1873 and 1875-1931).svg
| p2                     = Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899)((!))Revolutionary Government
| flag_p2                = Philippines Aguinaldo flag (obverse).svg
| s1                     = Insular Government of the Philippine  Islands((!))Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
| flag_s1                = Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg
| s2                     = Tagalog Republic((!))Tagalog Republic
| flag_s2                = Flag of the Katagalugan Republic.svg
| image_flag             = Flag of the Philippines (1898–1901).svg
| flag_type              = [[Flag of the Philippines|Flag]]
| image_flag2            = 
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of the Philippines (1898–1901).svg
| symbol_type            = [[Coat of arms of the Philippines#First Philippine Republic|Emblem]]
| image_map              = PhilippineRevolutionMapDuringTheInaugurationOfTheMalolosConstitution.png
| image_map_caption      = Territory controlled by the Philippine Republic, most of which it occupied except Manila and parts of Mindanao.
| capital                = [[Malolos]]((efn|The capital (Malolos) was held by enemy forces from March 31, 1899. Temporary capitals were
(({!))
((!))-
((!))
*[[Angeles, Pampanga]] from March 17, 1899;
*[[San Isidro, Nueva Ecija]] from March 29, 1899;<ref name=mayorsonia>((cite news|last1=Navasero|first1=Mandy|title=Mayor Sonia Lorenzo and historic San Isidro|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=SKhjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=hiUMAAAAIBAJ&pg=3167%2C42117585|access-date=20 January 2016|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=29 September 2001))</ref>
*[[Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija]] from May 9, 1899;<ref name="TheFirstPhilippineRepublic">((cite web |title=The First Philippine Republic |url=https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/ |website=National Historical Commission of the Philippines |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=October 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007035227/https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/ ))</ref>
*[[Bamban, Tarlac]] from June 6, 1899;
*[[Tarlac City, Tarlac]] from June 21, 1899;
*[[Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya]] from November 1899;
*[[Bayambang, Pangasinan]], until November 13, 1899;<ref name="TheFirstPhilippineRepublic"/>
*[[Lubuagan, Kalinga]], from March 6, 1900, to May 18, 1900;<ref name="LubuaganGovPH-History">((cite web |title=History |url=https://www.lubuagan.gov.ph/index.php/about-us/history |website=Municipality of Lubuagan |access-date=23 August 2021))</ref>
*[[Palanan, Isabela]] until March 23, 1901.<ref>((cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC|title=The War of 1898, and U.S. Interventions, 1898–1934 |editor=Benjamin R. Beede|author1=Benjamin R. Beede|author2=Richard L. Blanco|year=1994|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&q=%22he%20quartered%20aguinaldo%22 281]|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-5624-7))</ref>
((!)) ((Location map many|Luzon
|width      = 
|float      = center
|border     = 
|caption    = 
|alt        = 
|relief     = 
|AlternativeMap= 
|overlay_image = 
|label      = Malolos
|label_size = 50
|label_width = 20
|position   = 
|background = 
|mark       = 
|marksize   = 
|link       = 
| coordinates = ((coord|14|50|37|N|120|48|41|E))
| label2      = Angeles
| label2_size = 40
| label2_width= 20
| position2   =  left
| background2 =  
| mark2       = 
| mark2size   = 4
| link2       = 
| coordinates2 = ((coord|15|08|50|N|120|35|4|E))
| label3      = San Isidro
| label3_size = 40
| label3_width= 20
| position3   = 
| background3 =  
| mark3       = 
| mark3size   = 4
| link3       = 
| coordinates3= ((Coord|15|18|35|N|120|54|34|E))
| label4      = Cabanatuan
| label4_size = 40
| label4_width= 20
| position4   =  
| background4 =  
| mark4       = 
| mark4size   = 4
| link4       = 
| coordinates4 = ((coord|15|29|27|N|120|58|04|E))
| label5      = Bamban
| label5_size = 40
| label5_width= 20
| position5   =  left
| background5 =  
| mark5       = 
| mark5size   = 4
| link5       = 
| coordinates5 = ((coord|15|16|27|N|120|34|1|E))
| label6      = Tarlac
| label6_size = 40
| label6_width= 20
| position6   =  left
| background6 =  
| mark6       = 
| mark6size   = 4
| link6       = 
| coordinates6 = ((coord|15|30|N|120|30|E))
| label7      = Bayombong
| label7_size = 40
| label7_width= 20
| position7   = left
| background7 =  
| mark7       = 
| mark7size   = 4
| link7       = 
| coordinates7 = ((coord|16|30|N|121|09|E))
| label8      = Bayambang
| label8_size = 40
| label8_width= 20
| position8   = left
| background8 =  
| mark8       = 
| mark8size   = 4
| link8       = 
| coordinates8 = ((coord|15|43|00|N|120|21|00|E))
| label9      = Lubuagan
| label9_size = 40
| label9_width= 20
| position9   = left
| background9 =  
| mark9size   = 4
| link9       = 
| coordinates9 = ((coord|17|21|N|121|11|E))
| label10      = Palanan, Isabela
| label10_size = 40
| label10_width= 20
| position10  =  
| background10 =  
| mark10size   = 4
| link10       = 
| coordinates10 = ((coord|17|03|32|N|122|25|48|E))
))
((!))-
((!))}
))
| national_motto         = ((lang|es|Libertad, Justicia, y Igualidad))<br /> (((lang-en|"Liberty, Justice, and Equality")))((cn|date=June 2023|reason=I haven't been able to find a supporting source))
| national_anthem        = ''((lang|es|[[Lupang Hinirang|Marcha Nacional Filipina]]))''<br />(((Lang-en|"Philippine National March")))<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">((center|[[File:Marcha Nacional Filipina (1899).ogg]]))</div>
| largest_city           = [[Manila]] (until [[Battle of Manila (1899)|February 5, 1899]])
| official_languages     = [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]]((efn|Article 93 of the [[Malolos Constitution]] specifies that the Spanish language shall temporarily be used until laws regulating language usage are promulgated.<ref name="constitution text" />))
| religion               = [[Secular state]]<br />'''Majority:'''<br/>[[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Roman Catholicism]]<br />'''Minority:'''<br />[[Indigenous Philippine folk religions|Folk religion]], [[Sunni Islam]]
| demonym                = [[Filipino people|Filipino]]
| government_type        = '''1899:'''<br />[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]] under a [[military dictatorship]]<br />'''1899–1901:'''<br />[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|parliamentary republic with an executive presidency]]
| title_leader           = [[List of Presidents of the Philippines|President]]
| leader1                = [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] (first)
| year_leader1           = 1899–1901
| leader2                = [[Miguel Malvar]] (last; ''[[List of unofficial presidents of the Philippines|unofficial]]'')
| year_leader2           = 1901–1902
| title_deputy           = [[List of Prime Ministers of the Philippines|Prime Minister]]
| deputy1                = [[Apolinario Mabini]] (first)
| year_deputy1           = 1899
| deputy2                = [[Pedro Paterno]] (last)
| year_deputy2           = 1899
| legislature            = [[Malolos Congress|National Assembly]]
| stat_year1             = 1898
| stat_area1             = 298,719
| ref_area1              = <ref name=NBE>[http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/results.vm?o=&w=7.832.719+habitantes.&f=text&t=%2Bcreation&l=600&l=700&s=0&lang=en La Dinastía (Barcelona). 29/11/1898, page 3] as returned in search results at the [http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es National Library of Spain].</ref>((better source needed|reason=Search results are unstable and thus not reliably [[WP:V|verifiable]]. Use an article instead|date=February 2022))
| stat_pop1              = 7,832,719
| ref_pop1               = <ref name=NBE />
| currency               = [[Philippine peso|Peso]]
))
((History of the Philippines))
[[File:Gen Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb|upright|First President of the Philippines, [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], in the field.]]
[[File:Malolosrepublic.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Inauguration of the First Philippine Republic in Malolos, January 23, 1899]]

The '''Philippine Republic''' (((lang-es|República Filipina<!-- per the official text of the 1899 constitution, written in Spanish -->))), now officially remembered as the '''First Philippine Republic''' and also referred to by historians as the '''Malolos Republic''',<!-- no need for Spanish translations, they are not contemporary and these terms originate in English-language histories written after the fact --> was established in [[Malolos]], [[Bulacan]] during the [[Philippine Revolution]] against the [[Spanish Empire]] (1896–1898) and the [[Spanish–American War]] between Spain and the [[United States]] (1898) through the promulgation of the [[Malolos Constitution]] on January 22, 1899, succeeding the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899)|Revolutionary Government of the Philippines]]. It was formally established with [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] as president.<ref name=guevara1972pp104-119>((harvnb|Guevara|1972|pp=[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/122?rgn=full+text 104–119])) (English translation by Sulpicio Guevara)</ref><ref name=clarifydates group=Note /> It maintained governance until April 1, 1901.<ref name="ending date" group=Note />

Following the American victory at the [[Battle of Manila Bay]], Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, issued the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence]] on June 12, 1898, and proclaimed successive revolutionary Philippine governments on June 18 and 23 of that year.

In December 1898, Spain and the United States signed the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]], ending the Spanish–American war. As part of the treaty, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The treaty was not formally proclaimed until April 11, 1899, when mutual ratifications were exchanged. In the meantime, on January 23, 1899, the Malolos Constitution establishing the First Philippine Republic had been proclaimed and, on February 4, 1899, [[Battle of Manila (1899)|fighting had erupted]] in Manila between American and Filipino forces in what developed into the [[Philippine–American War]].((efn|The First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United States on June 2, 1899.((sfn|Kalaw|1927|pp=199–200))<ref name=Paterno1899>((cite web|last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016))</ref>.)) Aguinaldo was captured by the American forces on March 23, 1901, in [[Palanan, Isabela]], He declared allegiance to the U.S. on April 19, 1901, effectively ending the Philippine Republic.<ref>((cite web|last=Aguinaldo y Famy|first=Don Emilio|author-link=Emilio Aguinaldo|title=Aguinaldo's Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United States|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=Kabayan Central Net Works Inc.|location=Pasig, Philippines|date=April 19, 1901|url=http://filipino.biz.ph/history/ag010419.html|access-date=December 25, 2016|archive-date=February 28, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228035848/http://filipino.biz.ph/history/ag010419.html|url-status=dead))</ref>((sfn|Brands|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/boundtoempireuni0000bran/page/59/mode/1up 59]))

The First Philippine Republic is sometimes characterized as the first proper constitutional republic in Asia,<ref>((cite web|url=https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/|title=The First Philippine Republic|date=September 7, 2012|publisher=Philippine Government|access-date=August 18, 2021|archive-date=October 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007035227/https://nhcp.gov.ph/the-first-philippine-republic/))</ref><ref>((cite magazine|url=https://www.mantlemagazine.com/index.php/2019/06/12/creating-philippines-independence-hard-work/|title=Asia's First Republic|date=June 12, 2019|magazine=Mantle|access-date=January 18, 2022|archive-date=January 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118135955/https://www.mantlemagazine.com/index.php/2019/06/12/creating-philippines-independence-hard-work/))</ref><ref>((cite book |last=Saulo |first=A. B. |title=Emilio Aguinaldo: Generalissimo and President of the First Philippine Republic--first Republic in Asia |publisher=Phoenix Publishing House |year=1983 |isbn=978-971-06-0720-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wYhAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2022-01-18))</ref> although there were several Asian republics predating it – for example, the [[Mahajanapadas]] of ancient India, the [[Lanfang Republic]], the [[Republic of Formosa]], or the [[Republic of Ezo]]. Aguinaldo himself had led a number of governments prior to Malolos, like those established at [[Tejeros Convention|Tejeros]] and [[Republic of Biak-na-Bato|Biak-na-Bato]] which both styled themselves ''República de Filipinas'' ("Republic of the Philippines"). Unlike the founding documents of those governments, however, the Malolos Constitution was duly approved by a partially elected congress and called for a true representative democracy.<ref name=guevara1972pp104-119 /><ref name="tucker2009p364">((harvnb|Tucker|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=RA1-PA364 364]))</ref>

==History==
In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began against Spanish colonial rule. In 1897, Philippine forces led by Aguinaldo signed a [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato|ceasefire]] with the Spanish authorities and Aguinaldo and other leaders went into [[Hong Kong Junta|exile in Hong Kong]]. In April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out. The U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron, then in Hong Kong, sailed to the Philippines to engage the Spanish naval forces. On May 1, 1898, the U.S. Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy in the [[Battle of Manila Bay]]. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines on May 24 and, on that date, proclaimed a [[Dictatorial Government of the Philippines|dictatorial government]]<ref name="423–427">((Harvnb|Kalaw|1927|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=443 423–427]))</ref><ref>((Harvnb|Titherington|1900|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/spanishamwar00tithrich#page/357/mode/2up 357–358]))</ref> (formally established by decree on June 18<ref>((Harvnb|Guevara|1972|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=aab1246.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=28 10–12]))</ref>). On June 12, he issued the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence]] from Spain at his ancestral home in Cavite. He established a [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899)|revolutionary government]] on June 23, under which the partly-elected and partly-appointed [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines|Malolos Congress]] convened on September 15 to write a constitution.<ref name=constitution>((Harvnb|Guevara|1972|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=aab1246.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=122&size=100 104–119]))</ref>

On December 10, 1898, the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]] was signed, ending the [[Spanish–American War]] and transferring the Philippines from Spain to the United States.<ref name=TofP>((citation|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp|title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898|publisher=[[Yale]]))</ref>

The constitution written by the Malolos Congress was proclaimed on January 22, 1899, creating what is known today as the First Philippine Republic, with Aguinaldo as its president.<ref name="quod.lib.umich.edu">((Harvnb|Guevara|1972|p=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=aab1246.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=122&size=100 104]))</ref><ref name="423–427"/> The constitution was approved by delegates to the Malolos Congress on January 20, 1899, and sanctioned by Aguinaldo the next day.<ref name="quod.lib.umich.edu"/> The convention had earlier elected Aguinaldo president on January 1, 1899, leading to his inauguration on January 23. Parts of the constitution gave Aguinaldo the power to [[rule by decree]].((refn|The three parts of the constitution which are of particular interest are:
*Article 4 – paragraph 1 lists three distinct powers: "the legislative, the executive, and the judicial", and paragraph 2 provides: "the legislative, the executive, and the judicial", specifies that any two or more of these powers shall never be vested in a single individual, and specifies that the legislative power shall never be vested in a single individual.<ref name=constitution />
*Articles 54 and 55 – these mandate the election of seven legislators to a Permanent Commission which is to meet when convoked by its presiding officer during periods of legislative adjournment. This commission is mandated, among other things, "To act on pending matters which require proper action."<ref name=constitution />
*Article 99 – "Notwithstanding the general rule established in paragraph 2 of Article 4, in the meantime that the country is fighting for its independence, the Government is empowered to resolve during the closure of the Congress all questions and difficulties not provided for in the laws, which give rise to unforeseen events, by the issuance of decrees, of which the Permanent Commission shall be duly apprised as well as the Assembly when it meets in accordance with this Constitution."<ref name=constitution />

In April 1899, the Permanent Commission was composed of Pedro A. Paterno, Felix Ferrer, Juan Nepomuceno, Arsenic Cruz Herrera, Joaquin Gonzales, Hugo Ilagan, and Alberto Barretto.<ref>((Harvnb|Zafra|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g1MeAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Pedro+A.+Paterno%2C+Felix+Ferrer%22 239]))</ref>|group=Note))  The constitution was titled "Constitución política", and was written in Spanish.<ref name=guevara1972p88>((Harvnb|Guevara|1972|p=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=aab1246.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=106&size=100 88]))</ref><ref name="quod.lib.umich.edu"/><ref name="tucker2009pp364-365">((Harvnb|Tucker|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=RA1-PA364 364–365]))</ref>

===Philippine–American War===
((main|Philippine–American War))

When the First Philippine Republic was constituted on January 22, 1899, in Malolos, that municipality became the seat of government of the Philippine Republic, and was serving as such when hostilities erupted between U.S. and Filipino forces in the Second Battle of Manila on February 4.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=373))</ref> On February 4, 1899, armed conflict erupted in [[Manila]] between Philippine Republic forces and American forces occupying the city subsequent to the conclusion of the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref name=linn2000app46>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|p=46))</ref> That day President Aguinaldo issued a proclamation ordering and commanding that "peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war".<ref>((Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=318 318]))</ref> The fighting quickly escalated into the [[Battle of Manila (1899)|Second Battle of Manila]], with Philippine Republic forces being driven out of the city.<ref name=linn2000app46-49>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|pp=46–49))</ref>

American forces pushing north from Manila after the outbreak of fighting captured [[Caloocan]] on February 10.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=379–381))</ref> On March 29, as American forces threatened Malolos, the seat of government moved to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=388))</ref> On March 31, American forces captured Malolos, the initial seat of the Philippine Republic government, which had been gutted by fires set by withdrawing Philippine Republic forces.<ref name=linn2000ap99>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|p=99))</ref> Emilio Aguinaldo and the core of the revolutionary government had by then moved to [[San Isidro, Nueva Ecija]].<ref name=linn2000ap109>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|p=109))</ref> Peace negotiations with the American [[Schurman Commission]] during a brief ceasefire in April–May 1899 failed,<ref name=linn2000ap109 /> and San Isidro fell to American forces on May 16.<ref name=linn2000p116>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|p=116)).</ref> The Philippine Republic core government had moved by then to [[Bamban, Tarlac]], and subsequently moved to [[Tarlac City|Tarlac town]].<ref name=linn2000app115-116>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|pp=115–116))</ref> Aguinaldo's party had already left Tarlac, the last capital of the Philippine Republic, by the time American troops occupied it on November((nbsp))13.<ref name=linn2000bp16>((Harvnb|Linn|2000b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-5WOrmt_VxcC&pg=PA16 16]))</ref>

American forces captured [[Calumpit, Bulacan]] on April 27 and, moving north, captured [[Apalit, Pampanga]] with little opposition on May 4 and [[San Fernando, Pampanga]] on May 5. This forced the seat of government to be shifted according to the demands of the military situation.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=392))</ref>

In October 1899, American forces were in [[San Fernando, Pampanga]] and the Philippine Republic was headquartered not far north of there, in [[Angeles City]]. On October 12, an American offensive to the north forced the Philippine Republic to relocate its headquarters in November to Tarlac, and then to [[Bayambang, Pangasinan]].<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=446))</ref> On November 13, under pressure by American forces, Aguinaldo and a party departed Bayambang by rail for [[Calasiao, Pangasinan|Calasiao]], from where they immediately proceeded eastwards to [[Santa Barbara, Pangasinan|Santa Barbara]]a in order to evade pursuing American forces. There, they joined a force of some 1200 armed men led by General [[Gregorio del Pilar]].<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=447))</ref>

Aguinaldo had decided in aa November 13 conference in Bayambang to disperse his army and begin [[guerrilla war]]. From that point on, distance and the localistic nature of the fighting prevented him from exercising a strong influence on revolutionary or military operations.<ref name=linn2000bp16 /> Recognizing that American troops blocked his escape east, he turned north and west on November 15, crossing the mountains into [[La Union]] province.<ref>((Harvnb|Linn|2000a|p=148)).</ref> Aguinaldo's party eluded pursuing American forces, passing through Tirad Pass near [[Sagada, Mountain Province]] where the [[Battle of Tirad Pass]] was fought on December 2 as a [[rear guard]] action to delay the American advance and ensure his escape. At the time of the battle, Aguinaldo and his party were encamped in [[Cervantes, Ilocos Sur|Cervantes]], about 10&nbsp;km south of the pass. After being notified by a rider of the outcome of the battle and the death of del Pilar, Aguinaldo ordered that camp be broken, and departed with his party for Cayan settlement.<ref>((cite book|author=Teodoro A. Agoncillo|title=Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnxvAAAACAAJ|year=1997|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|isbn=978-971-542-096-9|page=454))</ref>

Aguinaldo's party, traveling with del Pilar's force, reached [[Manaoag, Pangasinan]] on November 15. There, the force was split into [[Vanguard (military formation)|vanguard]] and rear guard elements, with Aguinaldo and del Pilar in the vanguard.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=447–448))</ref> The vanguard force overnighted in [[Tubao, La Union]], departed there on November 16, and was in [[Naguilian, La Union]] by November 19, where word was received that American forces had taken [[Santo Tomas, La Union|Santo Tomas]] and had proceeded to [[Aringay, La Union|Aringay]]. Aguinaldo's force arrived in [[Balaoan, La Union]] on November 19, pushed on the next day, and arrived at the Tirad Pass, a natural [[choke point]], on November 23. General del Pilar decided to place a blocking force in Tirad Pass to delay pursuing American forces while Aguinaldo's party moved on.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=449))</ref>

The Battle of Tirad Pass took place on December 2, 1899. 52 men of del Pilar's 60-man force were killed, including del Pilar himself. However, the Filipinos under del Pilar held off the Americans long enough for Aguinaldo's party to escape. Aguinaldo, encamped with his party about 10&nbsp;km south of the pass in [[Cervantes, Ilocos Sur]], was apprised of the result of the battle by a rider, and moved on. The party reached Banane settlement on December 7, where Aguinaldo paused to consider plans for the future. On December 16, the party departed for [[Abra (province)|Abra]] to join forces with General [[Manuel Tinio]].<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=455))</ref> The party traveled on foot through a pass at the summit of [[Mount Polis]], and arrived at Ambayuan the next morning. The party pushed on to Banane, pursued closely by American forces. At this point, Aguinaldo's party consisted of one field officer, 11 line officers, and 107 men. The remainder of December 1899 was spent in continuous trek.<ref>((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=456–458))</ref>

The party was at the border of Abra and [[Cagayan]] provinces on Aguinaldo's 31st birthday on March 23, 1900. The trek from place to place continued until about May 22, 1900, when Aguinaldo established a new headquarters in Tierra Virgen.<ref name="Agoncillo 1997 460">((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=460))</ref> On August 27, 1900, after American forces landed at [[Aparri, Cagayan]], Aguinaldo concluded that Tierra Virgan had become untenable as a headquarters and decided to march to [[Palanan, Isabela]].<ref name="Agoncillo 1997 460" /> On December 6, 1900, the party reached Dumasari, and arrived in Palanan the following morning.<ref name="Agoncillo 1997 485–486">((Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=485–486))</ref>

Aguinaldo remained in Palanan until his capture there by American forces with the aid of the native scouts on March 23, 1901.<ref name="Agoncillo 1997 485–486" /> Following his capture, Aguinaldo announced allegiance to the United States on April 1, 1901, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the [[United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands|sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines]].<ref name="ending date" group=Note />

Fighting between the Americans and the remnants of the [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]] continued until the surrender of General [[Miguel Malvar]] on April 16, 1902.<ref>Presidential Proclamation No. 173 S. 2002</ref>

==Organization==
===Presidency===
Executive power was exercised by the President, through his cabinet secretaries. The incumbent president of the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines|Revolutionary Republic]] initially assumed the presidency. Presidents were to be elected by the legislature to terms of four years and to be eligible for reelection.

In addition to his basic powers, the 1899 Constitution assigned the following duties to the presidency:<ref name="constitution text">((cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/the-philippine-constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution|title=The 1899 Malolos Constitution|at=Article 68|publisher=Official Gazette of the Philippine Government)) (Spanish, with a side-by-side English translation)</ref>

#Confer civil and military employment in accordance to the law
#Appoint Secretaries of Government
#Direct diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries
#Ensure the swift and complete administration of justice in the entire national territory
#Pardon criminal offenders in accordance with the law, subject to the provisions relating to the Secretaries of Government
#Preside over national solemnities, and welcome accredited envoys and representatives of foreign countries with relations to the Republic

===National cabinet===
The constitution established a Council of Government (Cabinet), composed of a President and seven Secretaries. The following individuals were appointed to Cabinet positions:((refn|Details of the composition of the cabinet differ between sources. ''Master List of Cabinet Members since 1899'' in the Philippine Government's [[Official Gazette (Philippines)|Official Gazette]] is more comprehensive than other sources seen, listing information for both the Mabini and Paterno cabinets.<ref name=guevara1972p115>((harvnb|Guevara|1972|p=[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/133?view=image&size=100 115]))</ref>))

((#section:List of cabinets of the Philippines|cabinet1899))

The following are the executive departments:<ref>((harvnb|Malolos Constitution|1899|ref=MalolosConstitution)) (Title IX – On the Secretaries of Government)</ref>
*[[Department of Foreign Affairs (Philippines)|Foreign Relations]]
*[[Department of the Interior and Local Government|Interior]]
*[[Department of Finance (Philippines)|Finance]]
*[[Department of National Defense (Philippines)|War and the Navy]]
*[[Department of Education (Philippines)|Public Instruction]]
*[[Department of Public Works and Highways|Public Works]] and [[Department of Information and Communications Technology|Communications]]
*[[Department of Agriculture (Philippines)|Agriculture]] and [[Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines)|Industries Commerce]]

===Legislature===
Legislative power was exercised by an [[Malolos Congress|Assembly of Representatives]] initially composed by members of the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898–1899)|Revolutionary Government]] and subsequently elected to four year terms and organized in the form and manner determined by law and referred to at various points in the constitution as the ''[[Malolos Congress|National Assembly]]''. It specified that assembly members would be chosen by election, but left the manner of the election to be later specified by law. The assembly was initially composed of the former members of the [[Malolos Congress]] and had powers and responsibilities detailed in Title IV of the constitution.

===Provincial and local government===
Municipal and provincial governments under the Republic had quickly reorganized upon Aguinaldo's decrees of June 18 and 20, 1898.<ref name="malolos crisis">((cite book|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro|title=Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic|year=1960))</ref> Article 82 of the Malolos Constitution covered the organization and attributes of provincial and popular assemblies, and specified the principles governing local laws.

===Overseas territories===
The government claimed jurisdiction over the overseas territory of [[Palau|Palaos]] (Modern day [[Palau]]) and the [[Sulu archipelago]]. Both areas are represented in the Congress by representatives appointed by President Emilio Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo sent a letter to the [[Sultan of Sulu]] requesting that the islands be part of the First Philippine Republic, but the letter was ignored.<ref>((cite web|title=Greater Philippines: Captaincy General of the Philippines|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/7824-evolution-of-the-revolution/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716211155/http://malacanang.gov.ph/7824-evolution-of-the-revolution/|archive-date=July 16, 2014|website=Presidential Museum and Library|access-date=December 18, 2017))</ref>

===Judiciary===
Provisional Law on the Judiciary was issued on March 7, 1899, in accordance to the provisions of the 1899 Malolos Constitution providing that the Chief Justice shall be chosen by the National Assembly with the concurrence of the president and secretaries of the government. Aguinaldo appointed [[Apolinario Mabini]] to be the [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines]] on August 23, 1899; however, the appointment did not materialize because of the Philippine–American War.<ref>((cite book|last=Pobre|first=Cesar|title=Philippine Legislature))</ref><ref>[http://opinion.inquirer.net/19225/blocked-from-being-chief-justice Blocked from being chief justice]</ref><ref>((Cite web|url=http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/about/gov/judiciary/sc/|title=History of the Supreme Court))</ref>

The Supreme Court included Gracio Gonzaga serving as president; Juan Arceo and Felix Ferrer as Chamber Presidents; and Deogracias Reyes, Juan Tongco, Pablo Tecson, and Ygnacio Villamor serving as [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines|Associate Justices]]<ref>((Cite book |section-url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/aab1246.0001.001/190?page=root;size=100;view=image |section=39B. The Judiciary During the Malolos Republic |title=The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899 |editor=Sulpicio Guevara |date=1972 |location=Manilla |publisher=National Historical Commission |page=172))</ref>

==Finances==
[[File:Un Peso Republica Filipina.jpg|thumb|The one [[Philippine peso|peso]] of the Revolutionary Government.]]
[[File:Stamps first 1898-99 Stamps FILIPINO.jpg|thumb|The postage stamps of the Revolutionary Government.]]

One of the important laws passed by the Malolos Congress was the law providing for a national loan to buoy up the national budget in which the Republic was trying to balance. The loan, worth 20 million pesos, was to be paid in 40 years with an annual interest of six percent. The law was decreed by Aguinaldo on November 30, 1898.<ref name="malolos crisis"/>((clarify|date=January 2014<!-- was such a loan ever made? ... etc. See e.g., https://books.google.com/books?id=TN4MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22national+loan%22+philippines+%22twenty+million%22&dq=%22national+loan%22+philippines+%22twenty+million%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=05rnUsH4KsWUiAf7s4E4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA I've never seen either this book or the book cited, and don't know what details they might provide -->))((page needed|date=February 2015<!--I have a copy of the book but don't know where to look in it to try to confirm this assertion-->))

==Military==
When Philippine independence was declared on June 12, 1898, the [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]] was renamed the Philippine Republican Army. Aguinaldo then appointed [[Antonio Luna]] as Director or Assistant Secretary of War by September 28, 1898, and the Philippines first military school, the Academia Militar was established in Malolos.

When the Republic was inaugurated on January 23, Luna had succeeded [[Artemio Ricarte]] as the Commanding General of the Republican Army. With such powers at hand, Luna attempted to transform the weak, undisciplined revolutionary army into a disciplined regular army for the service of the Republic.<ref name="V.R. Jose">((cite book|last=Jose|first=Vicencio|title=The Rise and Fall of Antonio Luna|year=1972|publisher=Solar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjFQPgAACAAJ|isbn=978-971-17-0700-2))</ref>

== Seats of government ==
((more citations needed|section|date=January 2021))
((Location map many |Luzon
  |width=350
  |caption=Provinces that served as [[Capital of the Philippines|capital]] of the First Philippine Republic designated by Aguinaldo in his attempt to escape the American forces.
  |label1=Nueva Ecija
  |marksize=8
  |pos=right
  |lat=15.48|long=120.97
  |label2= Pampanga
  |marksize2=8
  |pos2=left
  |lat2=15.14|long2=120.58
  |label3=Bulacan
  |marksize3=8
  |pos3=right
  |lat3=14.8464|long3=120.8125
  |label4=Tarlac
  |marksize4=8
  |pos4=left
  |lat4=15.47|long4=120.59
  |label5=Kalinga
  |marksize5=8
  |pos5=left
  |lat5=17.35|long5=121.17
  |label6=Pangasinan
  |marksize6=8
  |pos6=top
  |lat6=15.80|long6=120.41
  |label7=Isabela
  |marksize7=8
  |pos7=right
  |lat7=17.06|long7=122.43
))

((Further|Capital of the Philippines))
*'''Cavite El Viejo''' – The hometown of General Aguinaldo where the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]] was proclaimed on June 12, 1898.
*''' Bacoor, Cavite''' – The declaration of independence was first ratified in Cuenca House by 190 municipal presidents of different towns from 16 provinces.
*'''Malolos, Bulacan''' – In September 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo made the Paroquia dela Inmaculada Concepcion, an Augustinian-built town church (now cathedral basilica) of Malolos, the executive palace while the nearby Barasoain Church served as the legislative house where the Malolos Constitution was written. When the Americans captured Malolos, Aguinaldo ordered General Antonio Luna to burn the Malolos Church, including its huge silver altar.
*'''Angeles, Pampanga''' – On March 17, 1899, General Emilio Aguinaldo transferred the seat of the First Philippine Republic to Angeles. It then became the site of celebrations for the first anniversary of Philippine independence.
*'''San Isidro, Nueva Ecija''' – On March 29, 1899, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo arrived in Nueva Ecija and the town was made temporary capital of the First Philippine Republic. He stayed in this house which served as his executive office. When the Americans occupied San Isidro, the Sideco house served as the headquarters of Col. [[Frederick Funston]] who would later capture General Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela. General Aguinaldo's capture is said to have been planned in this house.<ref name=captureofaguinaldo1901>Arnaldo Dumindin, [http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/captureofaguinaldo1901.htm "Capture of Aguinaldo, March 23, 1901"] ((Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516050639/https://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/captureofaguinaldo1901.htm |date=May 16, 2020 )), ''Philippine-American War, 1899–1902''</ref>
*'''Tarlac''' – The Casa Real de Tarlac served as headquarters of the revolutionary capital after Nueva Ecija was captured by the Americans in 1899.
*'''Pangasinan''' – In November 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo designated Bayambang as seat of government after Tarlac was captured by the Americans.
*'''Kalinga''' – Emilio Aguinaldo made Lubuagan the seat of government for 73 days, from 6 March 1900 to 18 May 1900 before his escape and eventual capture at Palanan, Isabela.
*'''Palanan, Isabela''' – On March 23, 1901, General Aguinlado was captured by American forces with the aid of the native scouts and eventually detained in a villa near [[Malacañang Palace]].<ref>((cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC|title=The War of 1898, and U.S. Interventions, 1898-1934|editor=Benjamin R. Beede|author1=Benjamin R. Beede|author2=Richard L. Blanco|year=1994|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&q=%22he%20quartered%20aguinaldo%22 281]|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-5624-7))</ref>

===Image gallery===
<gallery class="center">
File:Pic_geo_photos_-_ph=cavite=kawit=aguinaldo_shrine_-_front_view_-philippines--2015-0611--ls-_(1).JPG|[[Aguinaldo Shrine]] where Philippine independence was declared from Spain
File:Bacoor_revo_govt_HQ.jpg|Cuenca House served as the headquarters of the Philippine revolutionary government in 1898.
File:Malolos basilica.jpg|The Malolos Cathedral Basilica. The ''Palacio Presidencia'' and Office of the President [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] from September 1898 – March 1899.
File:Pamintuan_Mansion,_Angeles_City,_Pampanga.jpg|Pamintuan Mansion, where the first anniversary of Philippine independence was celebrated in 1899
File:Jf767_Crispulo_Sideco_Housefvf.JPG|Sideco house served as Emilio Aguinaldo's capitol from the fall of Malolos on March 31, 1899, until May 17, 1899, when San Isidro was taken by the Americans.
File:Kabisera_ng_Republika_ng_Pilipinas_Tarlac,_Tarlac_NHCP_Historical_Marker.png|Historical marker located in present-day [[Tarlac State University]], where the headquarters of the revolutionary republic transferred in 1899
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)]]
* [[Sovereignty of the Philippines]]

==Notes==
((Reflist|group=Note))

==References==
((reflist))
* ((cite web|url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/constitutions/1899-constitution.php|title=The 1899 Malolos Constitution|date=January 21, 1899 |publisher=Official Gazette of the Government of the Philippines|access-date=December 27, 2022|ref=MalolosConstitution)) (includes original Spanish version)

==Sources==
((Refbegin|30em))
* ((cite book|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro A. |title=Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnxvAAAACAAJ|year=1997|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|isbn=978-971-542-096-9))
* ((cite book|last=Brands|first=Henry William|author-link=H. W. Brands|title=Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VryhDTRVClcC|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507104-7))
* ((cite book|last=Calit|first=Harry S. |title=The Philippines: current issues and historical background|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWtyAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-576-5))
* ((cite book|last=Doyle|first=Robert C.|title=The Enemy in Our Hands: America's Treatment of Enemy Prisoners of War from the Revolution to the War on Terror|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBryc3ANF6IC|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-2589-3))
* ((cite book|last=Duka|first=C.|title=Struggle for Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC|year=2008|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 ))
* ((cite book
|editor-last=Guevara|editor-first=Sulpico|title=The Laws of the First Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899 |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;iel=1;view=toc;idno=aab1246.0001.001
|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Library|publication-date=2005|year=1972|access-date=March 26, 2008)) (published online 2005, University of Michigan Library)
* ((cite book |last=Halstead |first=Murat |url=https://archive.org/details/storyphilippine00halsgoog |title=The Story of the Philippines and Our New Possessions, Including the Ladrones, Hawaii, Cuba and Porto Rico |year=1898 ))
* ((Cite book |last=Kalaw |first=Maximo Manguiat |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=17 |title=The Development of Philippine Politics |publisher=Oriental commercial |year=1927 ))
* ((cite book|last=Linn|first=Brian McAllister |author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |year=2000a|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3))
* ((cite book|last=Linn|first=Brian McAllister |title=The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5WOrmt_VxcC|year=2000b|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-4948-4))
* ((cite book|last=Schultz|first=Jeffrey D. |title=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDV40aK1T-sC|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-57356-148-8))
* ((cite book |last=Titherington |first=Richard Handfield |title=A history of the Spanish–American War of 1898
|url=https://archive.org/details/spanishamwar00tithrich |year=1900 |publisher=D. Appleton and Company )) (republished by [https://openlibrary.org/ openlibrary.org])
* ((cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish–American and Philippine–American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-951-1))
* ((cite book|last=Zafra|first=Nicolas |author-link=Nicolas Zafra |title=Philippine history through selected sources |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g1MeAAAAMAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Alemar-Phoenix Pub. House))
* [http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/republic.html The Malolos Republic]
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/Voelkerkunde/apsis/aufi/pop/malolos.htm The First Philippine Republic at Malolos]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=168478 Project Gutenberg – Panukala sa Pagkakana nang Repúblika nang Pilipinas by Apolinario Mabini]
((Refend))

((Philippine Revolution))
((Philippines topics))

((coord missing|Philippines))

((DEFAULTSORT:Philippine Republic, First))
[[Category:First Philippine Republic| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Philippine history|First Philippine Republic]]
[[Category:Former republics]]
[[Category:Former unrecognized countries]]
[[Category:Philippine–American War|First Philippine Republic]]
[[Category:Philippine Revolution|First Philippine Republic]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1899]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1901]]

Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):

Economy of the Philippines (edit)
First Philippine Republic (edit)
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